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AUTHOR: 


CALLEJA, 


T.  "LE: 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY; 

OR,  PHYSIOLOGIC^ 


PLACE: 


LONDON' 


DATE 


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Calleja,  Camilo. 

General  physiology;  or,  Physiological  theory  of  cos- 
mos. A  rectification  of  the  analytical  concept  of  matter 
and  of  the  synthetical  concept  of  bodies,  resolving  the 
problem  of  the  unity  of  all  objective  knowledge.  By 
Camilo  Calleja,  m.  d.  London,  K.  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner 
&  CO.,  ltd.,  1890. 


X,  391  p.     19«». 


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GENERAL    PHYSIOLOGY 


OR 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  THEORY   OF   COSMOS 


Ir 


I 


GENERAL    PHYSIOLOGY 


OR 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  THEORY  OF  COSMOS 


By  the  same  Author. 


-•o*- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  UNIVERSAL  PHYSIO- 
LOGY :  A  Reform  in  the  Theory  of  Physics, 
Chemistry,  Biology,  and  Cosmolog>'.     Crown  8vo, 

THEORY  OF  PHYSICS :  A  Rectification  of 
the  Theories  of  Molar  Mechanics,  Heat,  Chemistry, 
Sound,  Light,  and  Electricity.     Crown  8vo,  5^. 


London:  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.,  Lt?/ 


t     ^ 


I 


A    RECTIFICATION 

OF  THE 

ANALYTICAL   CONCEPT  OF  MATTER  AND   OF 
THE  SYNTHETICAL    CONCEPT  OF  BODIES 

RESOLVING  THE  PROBLEM  OF 
THE    UNITY   OF   ALL  OBJECTIVE   KNOWLEDGE 


BY 


CAMILO   CALLEJA,   M.D. 


LONDON 
KEGAN    PAUL,   TRENCH,   TRUBNER  &   CO.,  LxV. 

1890 


PREFACE. 


(^The  rights  0/ translation  and 0/ reproduction  are  reservtd.) 


In  this  work  our  principal  aim  is  to  comprehend  under 
the  fundamental  principle  of  mechanism — conservation 
of  energy — all  the  laws  and  theories  concerning  nature. 
To  reach  to  this  positive  point  we  unite  and  rectify 
many  contradictory  ideas  at  present  scattered  through- 
out the  current  treatises  on  Metaphysics,  Philosophy, 
and  Cosmology,  and  on  Physics,  Chemistry,  and 
Biology. 

I  This   comprehensive  theory   we   call  "  physiologic," 

applying  this  qualification  in  its  original  and  etymological 
meaning — "discourse   of  nature," — and  with  the   same 
signification   we   have   employed   the   name    Universal 
Physiology,   in    order   to  denote  the  study   of  positive 
science    in    the   abstract   sense.     We   divide    Universal 
Physiology  into  General  and  Special,  subdividing  each 
*c^     into  Analytical  and  Synthetical.     Therefore  this  General 
k^^^^P/iysiology  comprehends  two  parts  ;  the  first.  Analytical, 
rectifies  the  concept  of  matter,  and  of  all  general  terms 
referring  to  it,  such  as  substance,  force,  mass,  movement, 
^    etc.;  and  the  second,  Synthetical,  rectifies  the  general 

10  **^  c  *^  o 


\ 


'fl^ 


CM 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


VI 


PREFACE. 


ideas  of  the  different  aggregates  of  matter — bodies—in 
their  three  degrees  of  complexity  :  inorganic,  organic, 
and  planetary.  The  work  on  "Theory  of  Physics" 
(already  published),  and  that  on  Biology  (in  preparation) 
are  the  complements  of  this  "  General  Physiology,"  the 
three  composing  the  whole  "Universal  Physiology;" 
our  "Theory  of  Physics"  corresponding  to  the  Special 
Analytical  part,  and  "  Biology  "  to  the  Special  Synthetical 
part  of  our  "  Universal  Physiology." 

We  maintain  that  the  before-mentioned  principle  of 
mechanism  is  not  the  generating  cause  of  the  System, 
that  the  sole  true  agent  is  the  Creator,  whose  primordial 
effects  are  produced  solely  upon  living  matter,  and  that 
thus  the  potence  of  vitality  becomes  the  proximate 
cause  of  all  phenomena,  which,  consequently,  are  only 
changes  of  matter  uniformly  derived  by  simple  propa- 
gation of  movement.  This  affirmation,  which  is  justified 
in  this  work,  resolves  the  highest  problem  of  mental 
speculation  by  discovering  the  unity  of  all  objective 
knowledge,  for  as  the  universe  is  a  system,  a  theory  of 
its  activity  must  be  universal,  not  partial  ;  and  if  a 
mutual  connection  does  indeed  exist  among  all  material 
changes,  our  reason,  logically  theorizing,  must  arrive 
at  unity. 

The  inquiry  into  the  Physiological  Theory  of  Cosmos 
must  carefully  follow  the  laws  of  thought,  and  the  rules 
of  a  severe  logic,  in  order  to  avoid  mistakes  to  which  the 
mind  is  so  predisposed,  that  all  writers  on  Physics  have 
fallen    into  them  by  setting   forth  contradictory  ideas, 


-,■-*. -J 


and  by  denying  the  reality  of  some  existing  things  and 
forms  of  activity  without  any  other  reason  than  that 
they  cannot  be  weighed  or  touched,  when  all  we  know 
as  real  existences  are  necessarily  acquired,  not  by  the 
irreflexive  observation  of  the  senses,  but  under  the  guide 
of  reason — rational  experience.  For  such  a  purpose 
this  book  opens  with  an  "  Introduction,"  giving  the 
psychological  and  logical  data  necessary  to  develop  and 
understand  correctly  the  Physiological  Theory.  In 
addition,  the  work  closes  with  a  recapitulation  of  our 
principal  conclusions,  and  a  summary  of  definitions,  in 
order  to  show  at  a  glance  the  new  ideas  here  given. 

C.  C. 

London,  1890. 


iiiSSi^'^SSkef'SUSSiSJ^S^miiil^SMM'i a Ifirt'Tiitf"*'"'^'*' I -f*''Ti'  *«5r^iafetiaaBMte 


CONTENTS. 


-•o*- 


Introduction  to  Physiological  Theory   ... 

Outlines  of  Psychology  and  Logical  Data :  Subject  and 
Object— Division  of  Subject— Sensations— Thought— Phy- 
siological Knowledge  —  Physical  Inquiries  —  Validity  of 
Hypotheses — False  Doctrines — Province  of  General  Phy- 
siology. 


PAGE 
I 


PART    I. 

ANALYSIS   OF   COSMOS:    ANALYTICAL  CONCEPT 

OF   MATTER. 

CHAPTER 

I.    General  Concept  of  Matter  :    A.  Ultimate  Abstrac- 
tions OF  Matter               ...            ...            ...            •••  65 

II.     General  Concept  of  Matter:  B.  Relative  Signifi- 
cation OF  ALL  Material  Terms    ...           ..             ...  89 

III.  Ponderable  Matter  :  Indivisible  Particles,  or  y4/^w.f  123 

IV.  Imponderable  Matter  :  Variable  Parcels,  or  Progene  145 


PART   II. 

SYNTHESIS   OF   COSMOS:    SYNTHETIC    CONCEPT 

OF   BODIES. 

V.  General  Concept  of  Bodies  :  Atoms  and  Progene 

TOGETHER  ...  ...  .••  •••  ••       ^^4 

VI.     Concept  of  Living  Bodies:    Solids  and  Fluids  to- 
gether    ...  ...  •••  •••  •••  •••    214 


CONTENTS. 


\ 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

VII.     Concept  of  Celestial  Bodies  :    Inorganic  and  Or- 
ganic Bodies  together     ..  ...  ...  ...    259 

VIII.     Concept  of  the  Universe  (God,  Mind,  and  Matter)  : 

Criticism  on  Cosmogony...  ...  ...  ...    290 

PRINCIPAL   CONCLUSIONS   OF  THE    PHYSIOLOGICAL 

THEORY  349 

Summary  of  Definitions  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...    381 


GENERAL    PHYSIOLOGY; 


or. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


INTRODUCTION   TO   PHYSIOLOGICAL 

THEORY. 

Outlines  of  Psychology  and  logical  data  necessary  as  a  condensed  guide  to 
follow  physiological  studies-§  i.  Subject  and  Object-§  2.  Nominal 
divisions  of  the  Mental  Subject-§  3.  Sensations  and  their  classifica- 
tion—§  4.  Thought  and  perception  as  its  leading  factor— §  5.  Origin 
and  character  of  physiological  knowledge-§  6.  Process  of  reasoning 
in  physiological  inquiries-§  7-  Validity  of  hypotheses  in  Physio- 
logical Theory— §  8.  Brief  criticism  of  Realism,  Eclecticism,  Scepti- 
cism and  En:piricism-§  9-  Brief  criticism  of  Monism,  Pantheism, 
Idealism,  and  Materialism-!  10.   Province  of  General  Physiology. 

§  I.  Subject  and  Object. 

We  must  commence  the  study  of  mental  activity  by 
fixing  the  meaning  of  the  terms  subject  and  object, 
because  they  are  frequently  used  by  authors  not  only 
with  impropriety,  but  also  in  an  equivocal  manner. 

The  word  subject  is  commonly  employed  in  three 
different  significations:  in  the  grammatical  sense  it 
means  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed;  m  the 
ontological  sense  it  represents  the  supposed  universal 

B 


-Vl 


INTRODUCTION. 


I.   SUBJECT  AND  OBJECT. 


substance — substratum — which  is  illusively  considered 
as  the  common  basis  of  all  things  ;  and  in  the  psycho- 
logical sense  it  is  assigned  and  admitted  (by  Kant  and 
Fichte)  as  the  knowing  principle. 

But  some  psychologists  have  employed  the  words 
mhject  and  object  in  a  signification  contrary  to  that  given 
by   Kant   and    Fichte,    calling   object   the   capacity   of 
knowing  instead  of  representing  what   is    extrinsically 
known.     The  confusion  has  become  still  greater  because 
some  authors,  after  having  defined  subject  as  the  sentient 
individual  with  capacity  for  sensation  and  thought,  con- 
taining in  himself  the  principle  of  activity,  add  that  "  the 
subject  can  be  an  object  also."    Of  course,  by  such  a  con- 
tradiction, they  do  not  mean  to  convey  the  idea  that  the 
mind  can  be  observed  by  the  senses  as  a  true  cosmical 
object ;  they  only  wish  to  express  that  it  can  be  studied 
by  the  thoughts  which  it  produces.     But  the  mind  is 
not   susceptible  of  any  division,  as  in  the   activity  of 
thought  we  know  only  the  ideas  which  it  produces,  and, 
consequently,  if  some  authors  consider  thought  as  an 
object,  it  can  be  only  as  a  mere  mental  abstraction  from 
an  illusory  substratum  of  substantial  thought.     Sensa- 
tion and  thought  are  never  perceived  separately  outside 
of    one's    own    personality,    in   the   same   manner,   for 
example,  as  colour   or   movement   cannot   really  exist 
apart  from  objects.     Accordingly,  there  is  an  inextric- 
able   confusion    in    the   philosophical    use  of  the  word 
subject  and  of  its  opposite,  object;  nevertheless  we  will 
adopt  them  always,  employing  the  word  subject,  however, 
as  a  synonym  of  the  mind  which  must  be  recognized 
and  admitted  as  an  activity  different  from  that  which  is 
manifested  through  the  senses,  i.e.  matter.     Hence  we 
admit  the  distinction   between   spiritual   and   material 


created  beings  in  harmony  with  two  different  kinds  of 
knowledge.  Our  knowledge  of  the  spirit,  subject  or 
mindy  is  purely  intellectual ;  the  data  of  intrinsic  intui- 
tion cannot  be  acquired  by  the  senses,  nor  be  submitted 
to  any  direct  experimental  proof;  while  our  knowledge 
of  matter,  object  or  nature,  is  based  in  sensual  acquisitions 
and  proofs.  Hence  the  changes  manifested  in  Cosmos, 
which,  as  we  shall  see,  are  determined  by  acts  of  vitality, 
are  only  known  by  objective  states  of  consciousness, 
which  are  the  effects  of  manifested  changes  called  also 
phenomena.  From  phenomena  we  form  the  concept  of 
matter — object  or  no7i  ego,  in  opposition  to  the  mental 
unity — subject  or  ego.  The  conception  of  spirit  is 
acquired  by  the  perception  of  qualities  which  constitute 
our  conscious  activity,  and  which  are  perceived  only  in 
the  consciousness  itself,  for  each  subject  perceives  only 
his  own  sensations  and  not  those  of  others,  that  is  to 
say,  the  states  of  self-perception  can  never  be  felt  by 
another  than  one's  self,  and  for  this  reason  the  intrinsic 
perceptions  are  not  "  phenomena,"  but  purely  "noumena  " 
from  subjective  perceptions  (emotions  and  thoughts). 

Accordingly,  the  nature  of  mental  reaction  depends 
on  both — on  the  mental  or  subjective,  and  on  the 
material  or  objective  activity.  We  do  not  know  what 
the  first  is  ;  we  shall  see  that  the  second  is  movement. 
Mental  activity  cannot  be  explained  by  movement,  on 
the  contrary,  the  differences  among  simple  states  of  con- 
sciousness are  qualitative,  while  movement  can  differ 
only  in  quantity.  The  organic  activity  of  the  brain  is, 
of  course,  material ;  it  is  the  propagation  of  movement 
by  the  nervous  element  that  constitutes  the  encephalic 
mass,  and  nothing  else. 

These  two  kinds  of  knowledge  referred  to — spiritual 


4  INTRODUCTION  TO 

and  material — are  under  the  immediate  control  of 
human  perception,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Supreme  Being  or  Primordial  Cause,  which  our  limited 
capacity  of  perception  cannot  comprehend,  because,  not 
being  present  in  our  consciousness  we  cannot  directly 
know  it.  Thus  we  have  made  reference  to  three  kinds 
of  beings  or  things  entirely  different,  God,  mind  (sub- 
ject), and  matter  (object),  which  together  may  be  called 
the  universal  trinity. 

In  accordance  with  this  distinction  between  subject 
and  object  is  our  classification  of  the  theoretical  or 
speculative  sciences  we  call  sophological,  which  we  group 
under  two  headings — Physiology  and  Metaphysics  ;  Phy- 
siology comprehending  the  study  of  object  or  material 
nature  in  its  inorganic,  as  well  as  in  its  organized  form, 
and  Metaphysics  comprehending  the  study  of  subject  or 
mental  activity,  not  only  in  created  minds — Psychology 
— but  also  our  conception  of  superhuman  intellect  or  the 
Divine — Theology.  In  this  introduction  we  principally 
though  briefly  explain  the  notion  of  the  mental  subject, 
in  order  to  avoid  falling  into  the  error  of  confounding  it 
with  object,  as  do  those  who  suppose  that  the  activity 
of  the  mind  is  discovered  by  investigating  the  functions 
of  nervous  transmission,  when,  really,  this  inquiry,  even 
in  the  most  central  organ  of  the  system — the  brain — 
reaches  no  farther  than  the  knowledge  of  one  of  the 
forms  of  matter  in  movement.  Such  a  mistake  has  led 
many  physiologists  into  materialism.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  need  also  the  knowledge  of  a  true,  metaphy- 
sical base,  because,  without  the  notion  of  the  funda- 
mental ideas  of  the  spiritual,  we  cannot  infer  the  concept 
of  matter,  which  is  the  foundation  of  our  Physiological 
Theory. 


physiological  theory  of  cosmos.  5 

§  2.  Nominal  Divisions  of  the  Mental  Subject. 

The  acts  of  feeling  and  thought  are  symbolized  in  the 
entity  which  we  call  mind  or  psychical  activity,  and  we 
say  that  the  mind,  in  substitution  of  the  personal  subject, 
feels  and  thinks  ;  the  product  of  feeling  we  call  sensa- 
tion, and  that  of  thinking  thought. 

Sensation  and  thought  are  not  two  different  activi- 
ties, but  two  successive  degrees  of  single  mental  activity, 
because  sensation  is  necessarily  included  in  perception, 
which  is  the  primordial  and  most  essential  factor  of 
thought.  Objective  perception  involves  not  only  pre- 
sentation of  ideas,  but  also  their  representation — that  is, 
the  manifestation  of  ideas  previously  formed  by  objec- 
tive sensations.  Furthermore,  the  reproducing  elements 
of  knowledge  (representation)  are  more  important  than 
the  elements  acquired  in  actuality  (presentation).  For 
this  reason  the  processes  of  presentation  and  represen- 
tation are  necessary  at  the  same  time,  in  order  to  acquire 
the  scientific  knowledge  of  Cosmos  (Physiology). 

There  are  forms  of  representation,  however,  which  do 
not  involve  any  perception  of  actual  presentation  :  such 
are  the  acts  of  memory  and  those  of  imagination  ;  but 
even  then  the  object  may  also  be  suggested  by  the 
senses  through  the  act  of  association.  Therefore  mature 
perception  involves  in  some  manner  representative 
activity,though  in  many  perceptions  presentation  plays  an 
important  part,  while  in  some  others,  being  purely  repre- 
sentative, it  constitutes  a  special  phase  of  mental  activity 
in  which  the  elements  can  even  be  combined  in  new  forms. 

The  mind  initiates  the  mental  process  with  acts  of 
sensibility,  in  which  capacity  it  is  an  analyzer,  for  it 
makes   a   mental    separation   of    the    ideas    on   which 


>    i 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

abstraction  depends.  For  the  capacity  of  thinking  the 
mind  turns  back  to  make  the  union  of  ideas  or  mental 
synthesis  in  order  to  form  general  concepts,  or  to  par- 
ticularize in  concrete,  that  is,  to  attach  to  the  objects  all 
their  concepts.  Moreover,  extrinsic  sensation  is  one  of 
the  forms  of  thought,  the  predominating  result  of  which 
is  to  affirm  in  our  consciousness  some  special  act  of 
sensibility.  External  sensation  is  essentially  a  con- 
scious process  of  the  application  of  reflection  to  the 
impressions  of  the  senses,  in  such  a  manner  that  our 
consciousness  recognizes  the  existence  of  objective 
things  ;  all  the  forms  of  mental  activity  contribute  to 
this  process,  although  the  most  remarkable  is  sensation. 
Certainly,  in  order  to  perceive  the  sensations,  it  is 
necessary  to  form  in  our  mind  an  ideal  construction  of 
the  world,  and  for  this  it  is  indispensable  that  the  things 
which  constitute  it  have  sufficient  activity  to  impress  the 
mind  in  such  a  manner  as  to  provoke  a  reaction  in  har- 
mony with  the  conditions  of  the  mind  and  the  intensity 
of  the  excitation. 

Spontaneous  or  irreflexive  consciousness  distinguishes 
will  from  thought^  considering  them  entirely  different, 
from  which  arises  the  classical  division  of  the  psychical 
into  sensation^  thought,  and  will ;  but  the  will  is  only  a 
factor  of  thought  which  incites  to  discourse,  in  order 
either  to  know  or  to  act  with  free  will  by  means  of 
contractions  or  muscular  movements. 

The  representative  power  of  the  mind  is  called 
mefnory  when  past  occurrences  (supplied  by  experience) 
are  reproduced  as  they  first  appeared  in  sensation.  In 
memory,  then,  representation  is  identical  with  presenta- 
tion. There  are  two  classes  of  memory,  one  is  spon- 
taneous, suggested  unconsciously  by  natural  conditions, 


2.   DIVISION  OF  THE  MENTAL  SUBJECT.  f 

which  may  be  qualified  as  irreflexive  memory  ;  the  other, 
on  the  contrary,  is  reflexive,  consciously  suggested  by 
some  scientific  reason,  either  categorical  or  hypothetical, 
and  may  be  qualified  as  rational  or  philosophical  memory. 
Irreflexive  memory  is  a  factor  or  quality  of  sensation, 
including  in  this  the  power  of  association  of  ideas. 
Rational  or  reflexive  memory  is  a  factor  or  quality  of 
thought,  and  this  is  most  necessary  for  scientists. 

Imagination,  like  memory,  is  often  considered  as  a 
special  faculty  ;  this  mistake  is  the  eflect  of  the  deceitful 
appearance  of  abstract  language.  Imagination  is  only 
a  mode  of  thought  in  opposition  to  reasoning.  Reflection 
follows  the  process  of  reasoning  when  the  premises  and 
conclusions  aflirm  objective  existences  exactly  as  they 
are  known  by  sensation.  On  the  contrary,  it  follows 
the  imaginary  process  when  it  represents  or  thinks  of 
something  which  does  not  exactly  correspond  with  the 
true  observations  of  nature ;  if  abstract  elements  of 
experience  are  then  reproduced,  it  is  without  the  original 
order.  The  fruits  of  the  imagination  are  called  artistic 
when  they  are  beautiful,  that  is,  when  they  keep 
harmonic  proportions. 

Imaginary  representations  in  general,  and  artistic 
representations  in  particular,  may  be  either  realistic  or 
fantastic.  Realistic  representations  are  those  which 
reproduce,  or  better,  endeavour  to  reproduce  as  wpU  as 
possible,  natural  objects  in  their  culminating  concepts, 
whether  these  contain  one  or  more  abstractions,  as,  for 
example,  when  one  tries  to  represent  the  singing  of  a 
bird  in  music,  or  a  human  body  in  sculpture.  Fantastic 
representations  give  us  the  conception  of  beings  never 
presented  to  our  senses,  and,  consequently,  without 
identity  with  experienced  objects,  as,  for  example,  when 


I 


INTRODUCTION. 


3.   SENSATIONS. 


one  tries  to  represent  celestial  sounds  in  music,  or  an 
angel  in  painting.  Here  we  must  use  only  realistic 
representations. 

We  see  that,  as  the  effect  of  an  erroneous  analysis 
of  mental  processes,  authors  admit  many  independent 
powers  in  the  mind  besides  the  intuitive,  that  of  sensa- 
tion, and  the  discursive,  that  of  thought ;  but  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  the  words  mental  nature,  perception, 
reasoning,  imagination,  intelligence,  understanding,  re- 
flexive or  rational  memory  and  representative  power  are 
all  comprehended  in  the  true  signification  of  the  word 
thought^  as  they  only  denote  partial  states,  acts,  or  factors 
of  one  and  the  same  power.  Even  sensation  and  thought 
are  not  two  independent  powers.  On  the  contrary,  only 
by  a  mental  division  can  they  be  conceived  separately, 
though,  in  reality,  they  are  mutually  dependent  on  one 
another. 

§  3.  Sensations. 

It  is  impossible  to  explain  what  a  sensation  is  ;  we 
can  only  give  verbal  or  tautological  definitions  of  it 
in  which  the  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are 
synonymous  expressions.  Thus  we  say  that  sensation 
is  a  particular  state  of  the  sensibility  of  the  mind  which 
is  referred  to  some  external  thing,  that  is  to  say,  to 
matter — objects  of  the  physical  world  or  nature. 

Proper  or  external  sensation  differs  from  emotion, 
because  the  latter  is  an  intrinsic  state  of  sensibility  which 
is  referred  to  the  mind  itself,  though  it  may  have  some 
external  impression  or  sensation  as  a  remote  cause. 
Again,  we  must  distinguish  conscious  excitations  or 
sensations  from  those  which  are  unconscious,  so  limiting 
the  meaning  of  the  word  sensation  to  the  excitations  or 


I 


1 


impressions  which  are  produced  in  the  peripheric  part  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  are  transmitted  to  and  perceived 
by  our  consciousness,  and  we  must  exclude  the  impres- 
sions which  are  not  perceived  from  the  list  of  sensations. 
The  nerves  which  conduct  excitations  from  the  periphery 
of  the  system  to  the  centre,  that  is  to  say,  the  trans- 
mittors  of  the  centripetal  currents,  are  the  conductors 
of  sensibility  or  estesodic  nerves,  calling  senses  the 
pheripheric  organs  which  are  at  the  end  of  such  con- 
ductors in  order  to  receive  the  special  impressions. 

There  are  four  successive  acts  or  operations  in  all 
sensations  ;  first,  the  impressions  produced  on  the  senses 
by  the  exciting  cause  ;  second,  transmission  through  the 
estesodic  conductors  to  the  nervous  centres ;  third, 
reception  or  presentation  of  the  sensation  in  the  brain  ; 
and  fourth,  perception,  appreciation,  and  discernment 
of  the  qualities  which  give  our  consciousness  a  more 
or  less  perfect  discriminating  idea  of  a  sensation, 
which  is  referred  back  to  the  starting-point.  We  must 
remark  that  all  excitation  provoked  in  any  part  of  a 
nervous  conductor  is  not  localized  at  the  point  where 
it  originates,  but  towards  the  peripheric  extreme  of  the 
excited  nerves.  Furthermore,  the  sensations  have  not 
the  same  limits  as  the  peripheric  excitations  ;  if  we 
excite  some  determined  part,  it  may  happen  that  the 
impression  will  be  perceived  not  only  in  that  part  but 
in  the  parts  around  it,  or  in  parts  more  distant ;  this, 
which  is  called  association  of  sensations,  is  the  conse- 
quence of  propagation  among  the  centres,  and  generally 
happens  when  the  excitation  is  intense. 

Sensations  constitute  the  first  mental  order  of  re- 
action against  extrinsic  action,  and  are  besides  the  in- 
citing cause  of  the   second  order  of  mental   reaction, 


lO 


INTRODUCTION. 


that  IS,  of  the  activity  of  thought.  This  consists  in 
associating  and  unconsciously  suggesting  ideas  of  sensa- 
tions, and  afterwards  reflecting,  consciously  of  course, 
on  the  sensation  already  associated,  and  on  the  sugges- 
tions in  order  to  form  rational  ideas,  or  to  interpret  them 
in  accordance  with  certain  ideas  before  acquired.  Thus, 
then,  we  form  two  orders  of  ideas,  for  one  of  which  our 
consciousness  is  in  apparent  passivity,  while  for  the 
other  we  act  with  clear  consciousness  of  mental  activity, 
that  is,  with  attention.  To  the  first  corresponds  the 
activity  of  sensation,  which  includes  the  unconscious 
association  of  ideas ;  to  the  second  corresponds  the 
intelligent  activity,  which  includes  the  reference  of  sensa- 
tions to  external  objects. 

The  excitations  produced  in  the  different  conductors 
of  sensibility  are  not  the  same  in  their  perception,  and 
from  this  arises  the  different  forms  of  sensations — 
objective  qualities,  so  to  speak.  There  are  impressions 
which  are  only  perceived  when  the  excitation  has  its 
origin  in  determined  organs  or  conductors  occupying 
particular  parts  of  the  body,  and  which  give  us  some 
notion  about  the  nature  of  the  exciting  agent ;  these 
are  called  special  sensations :  sight,  hearing,  smell, 
taste,  and  touch.  There  is  a  second  class  of  sensations, 
whose  causing  excitation  does  not  need  to  act  over 
determined  organs  in  order  to  be  perceived,  and  which 
do  not  give  us  any  idea  of  the  exciting  agent ;  these 
are  called  common  or  general  sensations  :  hunger,  thirst, 
necessity  of  breathing,  pain,  etc. 

The  numerous  forms  of  extrinsic  impressions  may 
be  classified  in  two  groups ;  one  comprehending  the 
sensations  ordinarily  produced,  or  which,  at  least,  can 
be   produced   in   an   indirect   or   mediate   manner,  the 


BWiWiiiiifiililiiiafaitinltir  lid 


3.  SENSATIONS. 


II 


object  then  referred  to  being  more  or  less  distant.  For 
the  propagation  of  activity  to  a  distance,  some  means 
of  transmission  are  necessary  which  must  be  in  con- 
nection on  one  side  with  the  object  and  on  the  other 
with  the  senses.  This  is  a  fundamental  distinction, 
because  while  in  the  first  case  the  object  and  the  senses 
are  in  direct  interaction,  in  the  second  the  interaction 
is  not  directly  between  the  object  and  the  senses, 
because  there  is  a  double  interaction — on  one  side 
between  the  object  and  the  medium  of  propagation,  and 
on  the  other  between  this  medium  and  the  senses. 
Each  of  these  groups  comprehends  three  kinds  of 
sensations,  making  a  total  of  six  :  first  group,  immediate 
sensations,  touch  (of  pression),  taste,  and  smell  ;  second 
group,  mediate  sensations,  thermic  touch  (heat  and 
cold),  hearing,  and  sight.  The  sensation  of  weight,  that 
which  gives  us  a  knowledge  of  the  application  of 
muscular  energy,  is  included  in  the  tactile  sensations. 

The  sensations  which  give  us  the  idea  of  changes  of 
temperature  (heat  and  cold),  though  seemingly  propa- 
gated principally  by  the  tactile  nerves,  can  also  be 
referred  to  a  distant  object  from  which  heat  irradiates 
(as  we  shall  afterwards  explain),  in  the  same  manner 
as  sound  and  light  are  propagated  by  means  of  an  all- 
pervading,  imponderable  matter  which  physicists  call 
"  ether."  It  is  true  that  in  ordinary  cases  of  practical 
life  the  thermic  sensation  is  more  frequently  experienced 
directly  than  indirectly,  at  least  with  reference  to 
terrestrial  bodies  ;  but  the  most  original  fact  of  thermic 
observation  is  distant  propagation,  such  as  heat  from 
the  sun,  and  frequently,,  also,  that  which  emanates  from 
combustion  in  a  furnace. 

The  direct  sensations,  or  sensations  of  immediate 


12 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


13 


contact,  result  from  the  action  of  corporeal  or  ponder- 
able bodies  over  the  senses,  it  being  also  worthy  of 
notice  that  for  the  special  sensations  of  smell  and  taste 
bodies  must  necessarily  be  fluid  ;  solid  bodies  being,  on 
the  contrary,  the  best  to  determine  tactile  sensations  of 
pressure.  Indirect  or  mediate  sensations  result  from 
the  impression  of  a  metafluid — the  imponderable  sub- 
stance before  mentioned,  which  we  c^W  progene. 

We  have  in  all  six  kinds  of  external  sensations — 
touch  (of  pression),  taste,  smell,  thermic  touch  (heat), 
hearing,  and  sight.  We  see,  then,  that  the  sensations  are 
expressed  by  abstract  words  which  represent  the  different 
states  of  consciousness — differences  of  quality — produced 
by  extrinsic  excitation.  But  we  must  notice  that  the 
acts  of  nervous  transmission  consist  purely  and  simply 
in  propagation  of  movement,  and  consequently  that 
objective  knowledge  is  acquired  only  by  the  quantitative 
differences  from  sensual  propagation. 

The  total  result  of  the  process  of  extrinsic  perception 
is  the  concept  of  objects  in  their  relations  with  the 
different  qualities  or  states  of  the  receiving  subject  or 
mind.  This  makes  it  appear  to  us  that  the  objects  are 
contained  in  the  mind  ;  but  such  contents  are  only 
objective  symbols,  and  thus  we  acquire  the  knowledge 
of  objective  perception,  not  by  inference,  but  by  the 
association  of  those  symbols.  It  is  not  the  eye  which 
truly  sees  the  object,  nor  is  it  the  ear  which  hears  and 
understands  ;  it  is  the  mind  itself  Indeed,  light,  sound, 
or  any  of  those  changes  of  the  world  which  produce  the 
activities  present  in  the  mind,  is  not  perceived  by  the 
senses,  though  by  a  figure  of  speech  we  say  to  see  with 
the  eyes,  to  hear  with  the  ears ;  what  happens  is,  that 
we   see,   hear,   etc.,   by   means   of  the   senses,   but  we 


:4  ■ 


I 


{ 


perceive  only  with  the  mind.  The  initial  activity  of 
perception  depends  on  the  interaction  excited  between 
the  mind  and  the  senses  by  the  external  object ;  all  that 
happens  afterwards  is  a  consequence  inherent  to  sub- 
jective activity  :  association,  unconscious  suggestion,  and 
reflection.  We  could  not  possess  any  idea  of  identity 
and  consistency  among  objects  if  the  mind  constantly 
reacting  did  not  correct  the  appearances  of  the  sensa- 
tions, but  was  strictly  limited  to  the  impressions 
produced  by  the  senses.  The  mind  is  the  sole  thing 
which  has  the  power  of  elaborating  sensations  and 
thoughts,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ovule  is  the  sole 
object  from  which  an  organism  can  be  formed. 

§  4.  Thought. 

Thought,  like  sensation,  is  an  ultimate  term,  which 
cannot  be  genesically  explained,  but  only  defined  in  a 
verbal  or  tautological  sense  ;  any  such  definition  is 
composed  of  terms  synonymous  with  that  which  is 
intended  to  be  defined.  When  we  think,  we  af!irm 
or  deny,  we  agree  or  disagree ;  the  resultant  of  such  a 
mental  action  we  call  judgment,  and  the  capacity 
which  contains  all  judgment  is  symbolized  in  the  word 
criticism.  If  the  result  of  the  comparison  of  two  con- 
cepts asserting  either  an  agreement  or  disagreement 
in  the  relations  which  they  express  is  a  judgment,  and 
a  comparison  of  judgments  is  a  reasoning  by  means  of 
which  we  arrive  at  inferences  (inductions  and  deductions) 
and  calculations  in  which  the  expressed  relations  are 
known  either  by  perceptible  sensations  (categoric  know- 
ledge), or  by  ideas  acquired  from  pure  thought  (hypo- 
thetic   knowledge),    categoric   knowledge    relies    upon 


if 


14 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  direct  proof  of  experience  in  order  to  be  considered 
as  evident  truth  ;  while  the  hypothetic  is  not  within  the 
direct  reach  of  the  senses,  but  is  warranted  by  the  laws 
of  thought  and  the  rules  of  art  which  direct  reason 
(Logic  and  Mathematics).  When  we  reason  we  can 
compare  in  two  ways ;  therefore  there  are  two  kinds  of 
operations  in  reasoning :  one  purely  logical — comparison 
of  quality  ;  the  other  mathematical — comparison  of 
quantity.  By  the  power  of  reasoning  man  can  foresee 
what  he  has  not  seen,  foretell  what  he  has  not  heard, 
predict  what  is  going  to  happen.  But  to  accomplish 
this  supreme  operation  of  the  mind  we  need  theories 
whose  starting-point  is  in  the  principles  which  are  the 
subject  of  study  in  this  work.  Hence,  there  are  various 
modes  of  thinking:  first,  formation  of  ideas  of  immediate 
perception — primitive  ideas  ;  second,  formation  of  ideas 
by  the  comparison  of  immediate  or  primitive  ideas 
(comparative  ideasor  common  sense  of  the  psychologists); 
third,  remembrance  of  preformed  ideas  (remembered 
ideas  or  memory) ;  fourth,  acquiescence  of  ideas  to  the 
image  and  likeness  of  those  already  preformed,  though 
not  with  reference  to  things  that  have  not  really  been 
observed  or  experienced  (imaginary  ideas)  ;  and  fifth, 
ideas  arising  from  the  comparison  of  judgments,  that  is, 
from  reasoning  (rational  ideas  inferred  and  calculated) 
But  there  are  only  three  acts  in  the  rational  process  of 
thought.  The  first  act  of  reflection  is  comparison,  which 
may  be  either  qualitative  or  quantitative  ;  the  com- 
parison of  attribution  is  qualitative — substance  and 
activity ;  and  the  comparison  of  relation  is  quantitative 
— space  and  time.  The  second  act  of  reflection  is  to 
make  assertions  or  affirmations  about  that  which  we 
have   compared  ;    this   is  judgment ;    the   assertion   or 


4.    THOUGHT. 


>5 


affirmation  about  that  which  is  compared  can  express 
either  similarity  or  difference,  and  this  is  the  agreement 
or  disagreement  of  judgment.  The  third  act  of  reflection 
is  reasoning,  by  which  we  acquire  from  inference  and 
calculation  some  judgment  different  from  those  already 
known;  the  inference  so  acquired  may  be  either 
inductive  or  deductive. 

Thought  generally  needs  attentive,  though  not  always 
voluntary  elaboration  by  which  we  form  a  notion  of  the 
object  of  sensation  more  or  less  complete  ;  thus  we  see 
thought  commences  in  the  last  act  of  sensation — 
primitive  ideas,  hence  sensation  is  the  initial  element  of 
reflection.  Primitive  ideas  may  be  grouped,  general 
notions  resulting  from  those  that  are  similar;  in  this 
manner  ideas  of  more  comprehensive  signification  are 
formed,  and  these  are  the  general  ideas  called  abstract. 

The  expression  of  ideas  previously  collected  reveals 
to  us  that  the  mind  has  the  property  of  preserving  for 
some  time  the  changes  produced  by  sensation  and 
thought ;  this  is  the  retentive  power  of  memory.  Besides, 
some  other  special  qualities  of  psychical  activity  are 
worthy  of  notice,  e.g.  the  co-existence  and  succession  of 
ideas,  their  association,  the  unconsciousness  of  some  facts, 
and  the  lack  of  influence  of  the  will  over  association  of 
ideas  and  over  some  bodily  impulses.  Our  conscious- 
ness can  estimate  whether  the  excitations  which  reach 
it  have  acted  simultaneously  or  successively  ;  neverthe- 
less this  knowledge  has  limits,  as  successive  sensations 
when  very  near  seem  to  us  simultaneous  ;  and  yet,  in 
order  that  we  should  become  conscious  of  excitations, 
it  is  necessary  that  they  should  last  a  certain  time,  and 
then  we  not  only  acquire  the  consciousness  of  them  but 
also  of  their  differences  and  similarities  (comparison). 


i6 


INTRODUCTION. 


4.   THOUGHT. 


17 


The  modifications  produced  in  our  mind  can  in  their 
turn  produce  other  modifications,  especially  when  they 
have  been  reproduced  more  than  once  in  immediate 
succession  or  almost  simultaneously;  from  this  arises 
the  association  of  ideas  with  such  pertinacity  that 
they  are  produced  without  our  will.  Thus  we  see  that 
the  ideas  are  linked  together,  some  having  the  tendency 
to  associate  with  others,  and  all  these  facts  approximate 
in  the  last  analysis  to  vivid  memory  by  virtue  of  which 
the  connections  once  produced  have  the  tendency  to 
reproduce  themselves  newly. 

Perception  is  the  leading  factor  of  thought ;  it  is  a 
combination  of  the  different  degrees  of  mental  activity 
in  order  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  what  impresses  our 
consciousness.  To  effect  this  there  must  be  interaction 
between  the  mental  subject  and  the  objects  of  sensation. 
In  an  interaction  nothing  is  given  by  any  one  thing  to 
another,  the  conditions  of  the  manifested  action  being 
only  propagated.  Thus,  for  example,  the  results  of  the 
action  of  light  are  very  different  according  as  the  object 
on  which  it  acts  is  a  green  leaf,  a  photographic  plate, 
or  the  retina.  The  form  of  the  reaction  depends  on  the 
two  things  which  must  act  over  each  other  in  order  to 
manifest  any  change,  and  when  one  of  the  two  is  the 
mind  the  reaction  will  be  on  this  in  order  to  pro- 
duce sensation.  For  this  reason,  perception  does  not 
depend  either  directly  or  indirectly  on  the  objects,  but 
on  the  reaction  of  which  the  mind  is  capable  as  the 
effect  of  the  special  excitation  or  impression  of  the 
objects  upon  the  nervous  system.  Hence  a  grotesque 
description  is  made  in  the  order  of  the  formation  of 
ideas  when  it  is  said  that  objects  stamp,  paint,  or 
impress  themselves  on  the  mind.     The  nervous  propa- 


gation which  produces  sensations  is  not  a  picture  nor  an 
idea ;  nervous  action  cannot  be  anything  more  than 
propagated  movement ;  it  does  not  carry  along  alpha- 
betic characters  when  we  are  reading  any  more  than  a 
book  contains  thoughts  which  could  be  transported  by 
the  nerves  ;  for  thoughts  are  developed  or  elaborated 
by  the  mental  subject  itself.  Objective  ideas,  indeed, 
are  products  of  the  mind  itself,  which  associates  them 
under  some  laws  forming  the  concept  of  abstraction, 
distinguishing  and  classifying  these  in  order  finally  to 
refer  them  to  the  objects  which  incite  sensation  as 
their  attributes  or  qualities,  and  to  calculate  the  rela- 
tions between  them. 

We  classify  the  perceptions  into  perceptions  of 
reasoning  and  of  imagination,  subdividing  these  into 
realistic  and  fantastic.  Perceptions  of  reasoning  can  be 
either  purely  representative  (memory),  or  presentative, 
this  of  course  containing  also  representations.  Hence, 
the  perceptions  qualified  as  presentative  are  mixed,  for 
they  need  at  the  same  time  the  help  of  the  memory  as 
well  as  the  present  sensations.  We  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  representations  of  reasoning  are  in  exact 
accordance  with  the  memory  of  forms  previously  ob- 
served, and  that  thus  as  actual  sensations  can  enter  into 
the  perception  of  reasoning,  so  all  the  elements  or 
abstract  ideas  are  representative  in  the  perceptions 
of  imagination. 

The  following  circumstance  in  regard  to  representa- 
tive perceptions  is  worthy  of  mention  in  reference  to 
Physiology :  a  case  experienced  will  be  more  exactly 
reproduced  the  more  links  of  connection  there  are 
among  the  data  of  sensation,  as  it  will  then  be  more 
intelligible.     In  fact,  if  the  connection  among  the  data 

C 


\v 


18 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


19 


is  known,  it  is  enough  to  remember  the  premises  in 
order  to  call  to  mind  the  conclusions,  if  we  have  rational 
or  philosophical  memory  ;  on  the  contrary,  if  the  ele- 
ments or  mental  connection  are  lacking,  the  case  is 
easily  forgotten,  except  by  one  of  those  irreflexive  or 
spontaneous  memories  which,  by  a  sort  of  unrolling 
of  words,  can  reproduce  them  without  any  other  con- 
nection than  the  immediate  succession  in  which  the 
words  were  acquired. 

The  knowledge  which  is  the  fruit  of  thought  takes 
thought  with  its  laws  for  a  means,  but  the  primordial  or 
fundamental  ideas  are  always  derived  from  intrinsic  and 
extrinsic  sensations,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  primordial 
facts  which  our  mind  discovers  by  immediate  or  direct 
perception,  they  being  isolated  without  any  connection 
in  the  existent  system,  and   so  lacking  scientific  cha- 
racter.    Therefore,  intuitions  do  not  belong  to  Physi- 
ology, but  to  Ideology,  a  department  of  Psychology.    In 
truth,   the    perception   of  objects   is   not    complete   as 
scientific   knowledge    until   they   are    assimilated    and 
classified  ;    mental  assimilation  demands  the  ideal  de- 
composition of  objects  into  sensations,  and  classification 
requires  the   recomposition  of  the   ideas   by    thought. 
Without  these  two  circumstances  our  mind  could  not 
define  or  specify  any  object ;  it  would  only  contain  a 
vague   and   general   idea   of  them.      Nothing   is   quite 
definite  so  long  as  we  are  not  able  to  refer  it  to  one  of 
the  known  classes,  or  at  least  while  we  cannot  establish 
the  relations  fixing  the  similarities  and  differences  with 
any  of  the   classes   already   known.     We  comprehend 
the  importance  and  necessity  of  classification  only  by 
noticing  that  all  the  terms  of  language  are  general,  and 
therefore  they  pre-suppose  the  element  of  classification. 


I  I 


I 


11 


Nouns  express  only  abstract  ideas  of  attribution  or  of 
relation  ;  and  they  always  imply  classification  in  their 
meaning,  as  to  name  a  thing  or  apply  any  term  as  a 
predicate  is  an  act  of  abstraction  which  pre-supposes 
classification. 

§  5.  Origin  and  Character  of  Physiological 

Knowledge. 

Thoughts  cannot  be  known  by  direct  propagation 
from  mind  to  mind,  though  they  may  be  communicated 
by  means  of  language  ;  the  mental  subject,  receiving 
the  symbols  which  transmit  the  ideas,  assimilates  them 
with  the  ideal  signs  which  represent  them  in  the  mind, 
and  which  in  the  ordinary  form  of  transmitting  ideas 
are  words.  Thus  language  is  the  progressive  necessity 
of  the  mind  as  food  is  the  conservative  necessity  of  the 
body,  and  that  sublime  necessity  of  thought  yielding 
supersensual  fruit  in  the  field  of  the  ideas  is  the  essential 
means  of  elevating  us  to  the  rank  of  rational  beings. 

In  language  there  are  two  kinds  of  expression : 
intuitions  (perceptions  which  are  only  felt),  and  pro- 
positions (perceptions  which  are  thought,  either  inferred 
or  calculated).  Language  is  called  propositional  when 
it  enunciates  some  new  order  of  ideas  by  which  we  can 
acquire  some  knowledge  not  already  experienced.  A 
proposition,  in  order  to  be  understood,  presupposes 
that  the  abstract  ideas  which  compose  it  are  already 
known  ;  and  such  ideas  may  be  either  intrinsic,  that  is, 
of  self-consciousness  (intuitions),  or  extrinsic  ideas  which 
have  been  previously  discovered  by  means  of  the  senses 
(sensual  representations). 

According  to  the  theory  of  knowledge,  the  correlative 


I) 


20 


mTRODUCTION. 


succession  in  the  acquisition  of  ideas  is  as  follows  :  in 
the  first  place  we  get  the  predicates  of  attribution  (ideas 
of  substance  and  activity),  whose  aim  is  to  reach  quali- 
tative inductions  by  comparisons  among  the  qualities 
of  the  sensations;  we  afterwards  reflect  on  the  similarity 
and  difference  of  attributive  ideas  in  order  to  form  the 
predicates  of  quantitative  relation  (ideas  of  space  and 
time)  whose  aim  is  to  know  with  the  help  of  the  axioms 
of  Mathematics  the  comparison  of  the  quantity  of  the 
sensations  which  are  perceptible,  not  directly  in  matter, 
but  in  its  mental  representations.  The  ultimate  induc- 
tions and  true  axioms  once  known,  we  may  derive  from 
them  the  other  ideas  combined  with  new  sensations, 
following  the  rules  of  deductive  logic  and  mathematical 
calculation  ;  thus  we  get  the  deductions. 

The  universal  act  of  knowledge  is  expressed  by 
judgment  which  consists  in  the  comparison  of  many 
concepts  with  the  assertion  of  their  equality  or  differ- 
ence. But  certain  ideas  of  sensation  in  reference  to  the 
concepts  which  are  compared  must  necessarily  precede 
the  judgment ;  and  besides,  it  is  necessary  for  the  ex- 
pression of  knowledge  that  the  mind  should  abstract 
from  the  judgment  of  particular  cases  some  unity  of 
thought,  some  analogy  among  them  which  is  called  the 
universal  meaning;  such  universal  ideas  or  common 
abstractions  are  a  necessity  for  language,  and  for  this 
reason  the  rational  mind  has  an  imperious  tendency  to 
ideal  abstractions  or  generalizations,  as  the  ovule  has  the 
tendency  to  nourish  and  reproduce.  So  we  see  that  when 
many  experiences  have  an  element  of  common  sensation, 
the  mind  has  the  condition  required  for  abstraction,  in 
order  thereby  to  form  a  unity  of  thought  with  all  similar 
sensations,  and  to  appropriate  this  as  a  basis  for  the 


5.    ORIGIN  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE.         21 

classification  of  ideas.  Such  a  universal  element  can- 
not be  known  by  any  particular  or  direct  experience  ; 
the  formation  of  universal  concepts  is  a  constructive 
action — an  assimilation  of  ideas  by  which  these  are 
converted  into  a  product  identical  not  with  the  sen- 
sations but  with  the  mind  itself,  as  the  cellule  trans- 
forms that  which  it  assimilates  into  an  organization 
similar  to  itself;  and  such  mental  products,  called 
universal  ideas,  are  not  simply  a  sum  but  a  multipli- 
cation in  which  there  is  a  true  generation  of  know- 
ledge. 

Thought,  we  have  seen,  is  of  two  orders — spon- 
taneous or  automatic,  and  reflexive  or  voluntary ;  the 
first  supplies  the  ideas  necessarily  acquired  by  uncon- 
scious activity  which  is  inherent  in  the  mind  itself; 
the  second  makes  thought  by  reflection  a  self-director 
with  self-consciousness.  Spontaneous  thought,  which 
is  immediate  or  irreflexive,  acquires  the  knowledge  of 
things  according  as  they  are  perceived  by  the  senses, 
and  ordinary  language  expresses  such  a  form  of  thought. 
But  cosmos  thus  explained  will  be  known  only  vaguely 
and  with  inexactitude  as  it  appears  to  our  senses.  For 
this  reason  reflexive  thought,  which  is  mediate  or 
philosophical,  must,  in  the  domain  of  science,  com- 
pletely abandon  the  classification  of  immediate  sensa- 
tion, and  for  this  purpose  ordinary  terminology  must 
be  changed,  or  at  least  fixed,  in  order  to  give  clear, 
adequate,  and  exact  symbols  to  scientific  ideas. 

No  theory  can  be  the  fruit  of  intuition— it  is  the 
fruit  of  thought  ;   and  a  physiological  theory  must  not 
be  invented  by  imagination,  but  planned  by  quantita- 
tive reasonings  or  calculations  which  are  the  fruit  of 
reason.     If  the  mind  had  only  its  capacity  of  sensation, 


I 


22 


INTRODUCTION, 


even  having  the  capacity  of  forming  direct  judgments, 
it  could  not  follow  discourse ;  and  with  sensation  alone 
we  could  not  even  refer  the  impressions  to  the  objects 
which  produce  them.  Objective  perceptions  are  the 
data  for  the  knowledge  of  cosmos,  but  our  ideas  of 
the  world  are  conceptual  abstractions,  which  the  mind 
forms  by  reasoning. 

The  interaction  of  matter  and  mind  may  produce 
either  subjective  differences — qualitative  ideas,  or  ob- 
jective differences — quantitative  ideas  of  space  and 
time.  The  subject  (mind)  is  known  by  qualities  or 
attributive  differences  alone,  and  not  by  quantitative 
differences  ;  the  object,  on  the  contrary,  is  known  by 
quantitative  differences  or  different  relations,  and  not 
by  qualitative  differences  either  of  substance  or  activity; 
that  is,  objective  perceptions  which  are  the  first  data 
for  the  knowledge  of  Cosmos  or  ideas  of  the  world  are 
formed  by  mental  abstractions  from  sensations  whose 
differences  are  only  in  quantity.  Thus  matter  and 
mind  (object  and  subject)  can  only  be  known  by  their 
reciprocal  action  (interaction)  ;  there  is  no  state  of 
consciousness  regarding  the  knowledge  of  matter  in 
particular,  which  is  not  determined  by  such  mutual 
action.  Now,  if  we  think  that  objective  knowledge 
(that  of  material  nature)  is  valid,  we  must  also  admit 
that  there  is  a  fixed  relation  among  its  antecedents  ; 
and  the  sensations  which  result  from  the  interaction  of 
things  and  mental  activity,  must  produce  the  same  per- 
ception when  the  extrinsic  excitation  is  the  same. 
Physiological  knowledge  is  based  or  founded  in  the 
perception  of  mutual  actions  among  objects,  that  is,  in 
their  relations,  because  all  the  properties  of  an  object 
are  finally  reduced  to  the  condition  of  producing  effects 


5.    ORIGIN  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE.         23 

by  interaction  among  things,  and  such  effects,  in  order 
to  determine  sensations,  must  produce  some  change  in 
the  organs  of  sense,  manifesting  themselves  to  the 
mind  after  their  propagation  through  the  nervous  con- 
ductors and  centres.  A  thing  alone  cannot  be  known 
or  conceived,  because  its  existence  would  not  be  the 
object  of  sensation  or  of  representation  in  thought.  A 
thing  really  objective,  then,  is  a  term  in  an  infinite 
series  of  things  which  are  in  mutual  dependence,  as 
without  this  there  can  be  no  possible  form  of  reality 
known,  either  by  experience  or  by  pure  thought.  Acr 
cordingly,  those  cosmical  determinations,  which  are 
generally  called  qualitative,  because  they  cannot  be 
numerically  determined,  are  as  quantitative  as  those 
which  can  be  numerically  determined.  Quality  directly 
results  from  the  mutual  action  between  the  objects  and 
the  mind  by  an  immediate  connection  without  reflection 
— irreflexive  perception,  or  attribution;  and  quantity 
is  a  relation,  either  numerical  or  of  extension,  among 
terms  by  mediate  or  reflexive  connection — reflexive 
perception  or  relation  properly  so-called.  There  is 
nothing  then  truly  attributive  in  objects,  as  the  attri- 
bution or  difference  of  quality  is  purely  subjective  or 
mental ;  while  objective  differences,  on  the  contrary, 
depend  on  quantity,  and  are  material  or  mechanical 
relations.  Let  us  now  fix  well  in  the  mind  the  idea 
that  determinations  of  quantity  only,  such  as  physio- 
logical inquiries,  can  be  derived  one  from  another  in 
accordance  with  general  relations  which  are  called 
laws.  Scientific  judgment  manifests  some  fact  or 
syntheses  of  facts  of  the  universal  system,  and  we  learn 
such  facts  and  syntheses  by  the  concourse  of  three 
kinds  of  ideas,  namely,  intrinsic  intuition,  experience, 


iiMfTitiliiiiifiriiiMIilin 


y 


24 


INTRODUCTION. 


and  reasoning ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  experience 
is  the  principal  origin  of  all  the  explanation  that  can 
be  given  of  nature,  and  that  reasoning  about  cosmos 
has  the  data  of  experience  for  its  foundation,  or,  in 
other  words,  that  physiological  knowledge  is  acquired 
by  reasoned  experience.  Concrete  sciences  are  not 
founded  on  any  data  of  intrinsic  intuition,  but  we 
cannot  deny  the  contribution  of  this  in  Abstract  or  Uni- 
versal Physiology ;  nevertheless,  it  is  general  among 
most  physicists  to  deny  intuition  in  all  questions  of 
nature.  Rigorous  logical  proofs  of  the  ultimate  ex- 
planations of  science,  are  impossible  without  accepting 
some  principles  which  are  evident  by  their  simple  enun- 
ciation with  the  sole  guarantee  of  intuitive  assertion  or 
self-evidence,  because  otherwise  there  is  not  sufficient 
reason  to  consider  a  truth  strictly  universal,  and  no 
evident  proof  could  ever  reach  its  limit.  Even  in  the 
fundamental  truths  of  Mathematics  there  are  no  other 
proofs  than  their  self-affirmation,  and  the  so-called  laws 
of  nature  are  nothing  but  quantitative  relations.  Facts 
directly  acquired  by  experience,  and  propositions  which 
have  been  proved  and  recognized  as  evident  by  sensual 
data,  are  the  most  numerous  elements  of  scientific 
knowledge.  In  addition  to  this,  there  are  some  prin- 
ciples which  are  only  beliefs  ;  thus,  for  instance,  we 
believe  and  assert  as  truths  all  the  propositions  whose 
denial  involves  contradiction  in  self-consciousness  or 
impossibility  of  thought ;  the  assertion  of  the  Miii- 
formity  of  nature  is  also  a  simple  belief ;  and  only  by 
faith  alone  have  we  confidence  in  the  testimony  of 
others  about  their  scientific  investigations  and  specu- 
lations. Many  beliefs  are  indeed  asserted  without 
reasoning,  as  they  do  not  represent  either  inferences  or 


I 


I 


5.    ORIGIN  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  KNOWLEDGE.         25 

calculations,  but  only  mental  inherences  ;  and,  besides, 
there  are  many  tendencies  very  common  to  all  people, 
which  cannot  be  submitted  to  logical  proof,  and  it  may 
be  said  that  their  certainty  surpasses  the  ideas  capable 
of  a  logical  demonstration. 

We  repeat  that  all  objective  or  physiological  know- 
ledge is  acquired  by  mutual  action  between  the  object 
and  the  mental  subject,  but  this  interaction  must  be 
subordinated  to  the  postulate  of  uniformity  in  the  su- 
preme purpose  or  end,  otherwise  equal  antecedents 
could  produce  different  consequents,  and  from  this  chaos 
only,  instead  oi  system ^  could  result  in  the  universe. 

Phenomena  or  manifested  changes  of  objects  are  the 
data  for  the  senses,  and  ideologists  usually  say  that  such 
data  may  be  contradictory  one  with  another,  and  there- 
fore deceitful.  But  all  physical  or  natural  reality  is 
material,  and  its  knowledge  is  derived  from  what  is 
manifested  by  the  senses.  If  the  sole  proof  of  physical 
reality  is  sensual  experience,  the  assertion  that  the 
testimony  of  the  senses  is  deceitful  is  not  true ;  in  fact, 
the  sensations  may  deceive  us,  but  they  are  also  the 
testimony  to  prove  the  evidence  of  our  knowledge. 
The  data  of  the  senses  may  be  contradictory  if  we  take 
for  a  moment  only  one  sensual  datum  isolated  from  the 
data  of  the  others  ;  for  any  sensual  datum  whatever  is 
complementary,  and  must  be  rectified  by  other  data 
taken  from  the  same  sense,  or  by  the  other  senses. 
The  true  distinction  between  what  is  apparent  and  what 
is  evident  knowledge  of  nature  is  that  the  apparent  is  a 
partial  inquiry  or  a  contribution  to  the  total  evidence. 
An  illusion  of  the  senses  results  from  testing  them  in 
an  inconvenient  and  incomplete  manner,  so  leaving  the 
assertion  without  evident  confirmation. 


26 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


It  is  clear  that  all  sensual  proof  requires  the  reflection 
of  thought,  and  therefore  that  all  knowledge,  including 
the  experimental,  is  not  only  the  fruit  of  observation 
but  also  of  reasoning.  Knowledge  is  always,  in  fact, 
the  fruit  of  mental  elaboration  ;  it  is  a  reflexive  and  not 
an  immediate  act ;  it  is,  without  any  doubt,  an  intel- 
lectual product,  and  not  alone  a  sensual  one,  but  to 
prove  the  truth  in  the  interpretation  of  natural  phe- 
nomena, experience  must  supply  numerous  and  correct 
facts.  From  these  facts  of  observation  we  acquire  the 
separate  primordial  ideas  which  are  the  basis  for  the 
knowledge  of  nature  ;  for  without  such  a  foundation 
the  human  mind  could  only  build  a  fantastic  world,  and 
whimsically  fix  laws  to  govern  it 

The  power  of  the  mind  in  the  study  of  nature  must 
be  limited  to  discover,  not  to  invent.  Hence,  pure 
reason  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  form  a  rational  theory, 
nor  are  the  particular  experiences  (which  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  senses)  sufficient  to  elaborate  a  theory, 
as  this  is  a  mental  synthesis.  Both  orders  of  mental 
activity — sensation  and  thought— are  complementary  in 
the  acquisition  of  physiological  science  ;  both,  then,  must 
work  together  to  arrive  at  the  rational  conceptions  of 
true  generalizations,  and  to  prevent  us  from  reaching 
imaginary  results.  Pure  thought  without  a  deep  obser- 
vation of  phenomena  can  give  rise  to  imaginary  ideas 
alone,  which,  ordinarily,  are  only  chimerical  suppositions 
about  nature,  like  the  innumerable  hypotheses  of  the 
Greek  philosophers.  But  to  believe  in  our  external 
sensations,  without  submitting  them  to  the  examination 
or  proof  of  reason  frequently  produces  false  conclusions 
also,  as,  for  instance,  we  might  think  that  the  sun 
revolves  around  the  earth  if  we  trusted  the  evidence  of 


I'  I 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


27 


our  eyes  alone.     Errors  of  perception  may  occur,  either 
by  perturbation  in  the  means  of  transmitting  sensation 
(abnormal    nervous    action),    or   by   differences   in    the 
association    of    ideas,   or   else   by   the   arbitrariness   of 
which  mental  influence  is  capable,  especially  in  its  most 
essential  product— language,  which  is  so  frequently  fal- 
lacious.      All    these    may    change    the    conditions    of 
propagation,  either  materially  or  verbally,  and  therefore 
may   change   the   qualities   of    perceptions;    these   are 
mistakes  which  can  only  be  avoided  by  careful  experi- 
ence and  logical  reasoning.      Hence,  strictly  speaking, 
experience  is  the  source  and  proof  of  all  knowledge  of 
nature,  but  the  generalization  of  ideas  in  science  is  far 
beyond    the    limits   of  our   sensual    observation,  which 
must  be  subordinated  to  the  supreme  capacity  of  the 
m\nd—reaso?i.     Thus,  in  a  figurative  sense,  we  may  say 
that  experience,  supplying  the  particular  facts  as  ante- 
cedents, is  the  mother  of  science ;  and  reason,  elaborat- 
ing the  generalization  necessary  for  the  speculations  of 
theory,  is  its  mentor. 

§  6.  Process  of  Reasoning  in  Physiological 

Inquiries. 

We  have  seen  that  true  scientific  propositions  always 
enunciate  mediate  or  reflexive  knowledge  acquired  by 
means  of  some  ideas  already  known  ;  and  that  for  this 
reason  language,  by  the  use  of  propositions,  serves  to 
transmit  scientific  knowledge.  Let  us  see  now,  how  the 
process  of  reasoning  follows  physiological  inquiries. 

The  uniformity  of  nature  is  the  only  guarantee  for 
the  logical  proof  of  all  inferences,  applying  this  denomi- 
nation   only   to   qualitative    reflections    which    may   be 


2S 


INTRODUCTION. 


cw 


either  inductive  or  deductive,  but  not  comprehending  in 
them  the  calculations,  that  is  to  say,  reflections  about 
quantity.  Induction  is  the  discursive  process  from 
which  generalizations  are  inferred,  trusting  in  the  law 
of  uniformity  of  nature ;  or,  in  other  words,  induction 
is  a  prognosticated  generalization  warranted  by  the 
belief  that  in  all  cases  of  the  same  kind  the  future,  and 
that  which  has  not  been  observed,  will  be  identical  with 
what  has  already  been  experienced ;  thus,  for  example, 
the  day  always  succeeds  the  night,  and  the  night  the 
day,  and  from  this  we  infer  that  the  same  will  always 
happen  in  future ;  again,  we  know  that  an  electric 
current  passing  through  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  produces  water,  and  from  this  we  infer  that 
the  same  will  always  occur ;  still  another  example, 
some  animals  and  people  have  died  a  short  time  after 
taking  prussic  acid,  and  consequently  we  infer  that 
prussic  acid  is  a  poison  for  all  such  beings.  With  such 
a  guarantee,  physiological  science,  referring  to  the  whole 
cosmic  mechanism,  has  arrived  by  reasoning  at  this 
ultimate  induction  :  in  the  changes  of  nature  nothing  is 
created  nor  annihilated — conservation  of  matter  and 
energy  (substance  in  activity)  ;  and  we  must  remark 
that  the  principle  here  qualified  induction,  although  it 
has  not  been  proved  by  calculation,  does  not  suppose 
that  all  manifested  or  phenomenal  energy  has  been 
created  at  one  time,  or  has  eternally  existed,  but  only 
that  all  physical  energy,  including  latent,  neither  in- 
creases nor  diminishes.  The  law  of  continuity  in 
Cosmos  is  only  true  if  we  admit  that  the  reparation  of 
manifested  force  is  constantly  engendered  by  the  po- 
tential energy  of  vitality,  that  is,  by  the  genesic  activity 
of  living  matter,  which  draws  out  energy  from  the  latent 


^i;,^^ 


J* 


6.  REASONING  IN  PHYSIOLOGICAL  INQUIRIES.       29 

state  to  the  phenomenal ;  material  change  being  thus 
constantly  originated. 

Mental  reflection  not  only  generalizes  but  also  par- 
ticularizes, inferring  special  cases  that  are  comprehended 
in  inductions  already  known,  and  such  form  of  inference 
is  called  deduction  ;  thus,  for  example,  we  make  a 
deduction  when  we  say  this  substance  is  prussic  acid, 
prussic  acid  is  poison,  consequently  this  substance  is  poi- 
sonous. The  first  premise  that  the  substance  is  prussic 
acid  supposes  the  necessary  knowledge  for  applying  to 
the  substance  in  question  those  characters  of  classifica- 
tion which  science  considers  necessary  to  distinguish  it 
from  other  substances.  In  calculation — reasoning  of 
quantity — we  perform  the  same  mental  operation  as  in 
deduction,  for  in  calculating  we  affirm  particular  cases 
from  the  fundamental  axioms  of  quantity ;  but  we  must 
notice  the  great  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of 
derived  affirmations,  assertions  or  conclusions :  qualita- 
tive and  quantitative  ;  the  former  have  sensational  facts 
for  terms,  that  is  to  say,  what  the  mind  perceives  by  its 
interaction  with  objects ;  while  the  latter  have  rational 
relations  for  terms,  that  is  to  say,  concepts  referring  to 
proportional  quantities.  These  last  conclusions  are 
what  we  call  calculations.  Calculation  being  the  mental 
instrument  necessary  for  a  complete  knowledge  of  phy- 
siological science,  and  the  signification  of  the  word 
quantity  having  been  erroneously  interpreted  we  must 
fix,  though  briefly,  the 

Concept  of  quantity.  There  are  two  kinds  of  quantity  ; 
discrete  and  continuous.  Discrete  quantities  are  unities 
and  aggregates  of  unities — abstract  numbers — by  means 
of  which  numerical  relations  are  determined.  Continuous 
quantities  are  those  which  represent  the  extension  of 


•t ,/  ■ 


30 


INTRODUCTION. 


objects  and  the  forms  of  extension.  We  must  not  fall 
into  the  equivocation  of  thinking  that  the  two  classes 
of  quantity  are  equal,  although  the  word  quantity 
represents  indiscriminately  the  two  kinds  of  relations 
here  indicated.  Number  is  the  only  discrete  quantity. 
It  is  an  aggregate  or  collection  of  unities,  each  of  which 
simply  represents  an  abstract  act  from  perception 
without  any  determination  at  all,  without  taking  into 
consideration  the  extension  or  nature  of  the  object. 
Number,  then,  is  the  symbol  of  quantity,  a  means  purely 
ideal  to  compare  and  measure  objects,  that  is,  a  standard  of 
comparison  between  discrete  determinations  of  quantity, 
in  which  the  unity  as  well  as  what  is  compared  with  it 
is  considered  abstractly  and  independently.  Neverthe- 
less it  has  been  admitted  by  most  mathematicians  that 
continuous  quantities  are  co-ordinate  with  discrete 
quantities,  considering  both  similar  at  bottom,  because, 
they  say,  they  are  multiple  or  aggregate. 

The  mathematical  confusion  between  discrete  and 
concrete  quantities  runs  parallel  with  the  erroneous 
identification  between  the  pure  conventional  forms  of 
thought  or  of  language  and  objective  realities  ;  indeed, 
most  writers  have  forgotten  or  ignored  the  fact  that 
words,  being  signs  of  thought,  are  not  directly  connected 
with  the  things  signified,  but  indirectly  by  mental 
agreement.  This  causes  a  falling  into  the  erroneous 
idea  that  our  arbitrary  and  conventional  classification 
of  natural  phenomena  coincides  with  real  distinctions 
among  them,  and  that  this  can  be  a  foundation  for 
inferences  on  the  nature  and  origin  of  objects.  Such 
errors  have  necessarily  given  rise  to  a  series  of  false 
premises  which  serve  only  to  prevent  the  true  progress 
of  physiological  science. 


I 


6.  REASONING  IN  PHYSIOLOGICAL  INQUIRIES.       3^ 

All  objects  are  entirely  continuous  in  perception, 
this  comprehending  all  data  manifested  by  the  senses, 
and  they  become  discrete  only  after  being  submitted 
to  successive  acts  of  perception,  thus  being  partly 
separated  if  the  perceptions  are  partial,  or  co-ordinated 
with  other  objects  perceived  in  the  same  manner  forming 
a  whole.  No  datum  of  sensation  can  be  discrete  in 
itself,  that  is,  in  absolute,  because  if  it  were  the  relativity 
of  objects  in  the  universal  system  would  not  be  true. 

Numbers  are  but  relative  unities  and  collections  of 
such  unities,  as  they  represent  either  single  perceptions 
or  groups  of  perceptions,  the  contents  of  the  object 
never  being  taken  into  account.  Besides,  numbers  are 
in  abstract  essentially  entire,  though  they  can  represent 
partial  relations,  taking  their  fractional  forms ;  but 
fractions  cannot  be  considered  as  numbers  or  prime 
unities  which  express  original  acts  of  perception  ;  they 
only  represent  objects  perceived  by  parts,  which  are 
subordinated  in  comparison  to  the  whole  or  entire  unity. 
Hence,  numbers  are  nothing  in  themselves,  they  only 
connect  ideas  with  the  objects  to  which  they  are  applied, 
and  consequently  they  are  essentially  abstract ;  never- 
theless, in  order  to  signify  anything  they  must  represent 
some  concrete  object  or  relation  between  objects  in 
particular  operations. 

We  can  now  see  clearly  the  technical  differences 
between  the  notions  of  quality  and  quantity.  In 
Mathematics  (the  science  which  solves  the  problems 
of  quantity)  there  is  a  great  difference  between  an 
objective  concept  of  thought  and  the  corresponding 
relation  of  such  a  concept  with  the  object  itself  Mathe- 
maticians are  simply  occupied  with  problems  of  relations 
either  singly  or  in  groups,  which  reason  has  established 


32 


INTRODUCTION. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


33 


within  the  limits  of  arbitrary  laws  ;  their  concepts  are 
exhausted  when  all  the  properties  pertaining  to  the 
object  of  thought  are  included.  The  conceptual  elements 
of  the  objects,  and  the  laws  of  their  mutual  dependence 
are  determined  in  Mathematics  by  pure  thought  ;  for 
this  reason  a  single  concept  can  be  developed  in  a 
series  of  others,  so  forming  a  mathematical  reasoning ; 
one  of  the  attributes  implies  the  others,  all  being  defined 
in  accordance  with  the  calculated  relation.  Qualitative 
concepts,  on  the  contrary,  are  never  exhausted,  because 
their  united  attributes  are  necessarily  incomplete  and 
variable,  on  account  of  the  infinite  perceptions  that  can 
be  formed  in  the  mind  by  the  most  insignificant  change 
in  any  relations.  When  we  try  to  establish  the  points 
of  community  or  similarity,  and  of  particularity  or 
difference  among  things  which  are  compared,  we  can 
do  so  either  in  quality  or  in  quantity  in  accordance  with 
the  two  orders  of  reasoning.  The  process  of  thought 
which  infers  attributive  propositions  or  propositions  of 
quality  is  logical  reason,  that  is,  the  capacity  of  reflect- 
ing on  attributions.  By  antithesis  the  process  of  thought 
which  resolves  relative  propositions  or  propositions  of 
quantity  is  mathematical  reasoning,  that  is,  the  capacity 
of  reflecting  on  relations  properly  so  called  (those  of 
quantity).  The  meanings  of  the  terms  induction  and 
deduction  must  be  circumscribed  to  the  conclusions 
obtained  by  inference,  which  are,  of  course,  qualitative 
reasonings ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  the  term  calcula- 
tion must  be  reserved  for  the  conclusions  of  quantity. 

Inference  and  calculation  together  compose  the 
complete  process  of  mental  reflection  ;  this  is  what  we 
call  reasoning,  which  consists  in  the  formation  of 
different  judgments  in    mutual  connection   in  order  to 


h 


■■■- 1 


establish  propositive  conclusions  as  the  material  of  the 
physiological  sciences.  Determinations  of  quantity  only 
and  not  of  quality  are  acquired  by  rational  applications 
of  general  laws ;  such  is  the  true  physiological  know- 
ledge, and  for  this  reason  it  is  by  Mathematics  that  the 
problems  of  Physiology  are  to  be  resolved,  in  order  that 
this  science  may  reach  a  perfect  development.  The 
extension  and  comprehension  of  abstractions,  then,  vary 
according  to  their  rank,  and  the  knowledge  of  the 
abstractions  which  characterize  a  class  is  what  we  call 
concept.  Abstractions  can  be  considered  either  as 
qualitative  or  quantitative  ;  in  the  first  case  we  express 
a  concept  of  direct  perception  ;  in  the  second,  we  express 
a  positive  scientific  knowledge  properly  so  called. 
Qualitative  concepts  can  only  give  descriptive  defini- 
tions, while  those  that  are  quantitative  can  give  rise  to 
genesic  explanations,  in  the  field  of  Mechanics,  of  course, 
in  which  all  causes  are  only  anterior  effects.  Only  when 
we  cannot  determine  the  relations  of  space  and  time 
among  physiological  changes  we  must  content  ourselves 
with  qualitative  determinations  which  constitute  irre- 
flexive  perceptions  and  not  true  scientific  knowledge. 

§  7.  Validity  of  Hypotheses  in  Physiological 

Theory. 

The  greatest  advantage  of  hypotheses  in  physiological 
theory  is  to  help  the  memory  with  supposed  connections 
among  objects  when  the  sensations  of  their  form  of 
activity  are  not  directly  presented  to  the  mind  ;  but 
although  there  is  no  doubt  that  physiological  knowledge 
is  based  on  sensual  appearances,  we  must  not  call  that 
knowledge  altogether  hypothetic. 

It  is  necessary  to  determine  the  true  conditions  and 


fi 


\l 


34 


INTRO  D  UCTION. 


Use  of  a  scientific  hypothesis,  not  only  in  the  criterion 
of  its  truth,  but  also  in  the  conditions  of  its  validity. 
Submitted  to  logical  proofs  we  must  affirm  its  possibility; 
and  for  this  it  must  not  be  in  contradiction  with  demon- 
strated principles,  and  must  give  full  explanation  of  the 
idea  affirmed  by  the  hypothesis  itself  In  addition  to  this, 
in  order  that  such  an  explanation  should  be  sufficient, 
a  complete  correlation  is  necessary  among  the  different 
mutations  comprehended  in  the  hypothesis;  thus  fulfilling 
the  scientific  precept  that  all  true  knowledge  consists 
in  generalizing,  by  verifying  the  analogies  or  differences 
in  order  to  assimilate  many  facts  in  one  abstraction. 

When  we  perceive  a  phenomenon  for  the  first  time 
our  investigations  aim  at  knowing  to  what  class  it 
belongs  ;  this  of  course  involves  the  idea  of  system  or 
uniformity  in  nature.  From  this  we  infer  that  all 
hypotheses  imply  a  classification,  because  this  is  nothing 
else  than  the  grouping  of  the  cases  according  to  their 
analogies.  Therefore,  a  hypothetical  explanation,  in 
order  to  be  valid,  must  mark  the  analogy  or  identity 
between  the  mutation  which  we  propose  to  compre- 
hend in  it  and  the  phenomena  which  are  supposed  to 
be  already  known  by  experience.  If  this  prop  of  the 
hypothesis  is  imaginary  instead  of  a  fact  already 
observed  and  rightly  interpreted  by  reason,  the  hypo- 
thesis is  valueless  ;  it  is  then  only  a  tautological  ex- 
planation, simply  changing  the  form  of  expression. 
Such  is  the  validity  of  materialism  which  pretends  to 
explain  the  activity  of  nature  by  saying  that  "it  is 
inherent  to  matter  as  this  is  always  in  movement."  But 
material  activity  and  movement  are  synonymous,  both 
representing  mental  abstractions  and  not  realities,  and 
so  that  explanation  is  only  verbal.     We  say  the  same 


7.    VALIDITY  OF  HYPOTHESES. 


35 


of  vitalism  when  it  maintains  the  existence  of  a  vital 
principle  in  order  to  explain  vitality.  Of  precisely  the 
same  value  is  affinity  in  Chemistry ;  attraction  and 
repulsion  in  Physics  and  Astronomy ;  and,  finally,  a 
mathematician  makes  but  vain  deductions,  when,  start- 
ing from  an  equation  alone,  he  thinks  he  has  established 
the  foundation  of  physical  hypotheses. 

In  every  explanation  we  must  keep  in  view  the 
course  of  the  acts  of  thought  in  which  the  relations  are 
established,  not  among  the  objects  themselves,  but 
among  their  mental  representation,  i.e.  among  the  in^ 
tellectual  elements  or  different  states  of  consciousness 
which  we  have  acquired  from  the  sensations  arising  from 
the  objects.  Hence,  when  we  speak  of  any  object  or 
property  we  mean  the  results  of  interaction,  either 
direct  or  indirect,  between  the  objects  and  the  mind  ; 
and  as  the  attributes  comprehended  in  the  concept  of 
material  things  represent  in  extrinsic  realities  only  their 
relations  of  space  and  time,  the  number  of  objects  not 
being  limited,  the  result  will  be  that  any  of  the  said 
concepts  will  always  be  reduced  to  the  properties  which 
mark  the  known  relations.  Cosmic  concepts  are  indeed 
limited  or  incomplete  as  an  indefinite  number  of  objective 
relations  always  remain  unknown ;  in  fact,  in  the  com- 
parisons we  make  in  order  to  form  material  concepts,  it 
is  necessary  to  take  into  account  only  a  finite  number 
of  relations ;  we  need  only  refer  to  a  number  of  them, 
more  or  less  limited,  from  which  we  form  the  abstrac- 
tions. From  this  it  results  that  hypothetical  judgments 
and  reasonings,  not  being  verified  by  experience  more 
than  in  the  categorical  concept  which  is  limited  (but 
not  in  the  supposition  which  we  try  to  explain),  are  liable 
not  only  to  the  double  error  of  defective  observation  and 


m^ 


36 


INTRODUCTION. 


7.    VALIDITY  OF  HYPOTHESES. 


37 


imperfect  reasoning,  but  also  to  the  error  of  imagination 
in  what  is  supposed.  Again,  the  concept  which  is 
supposed  in  a  physical  hypothesis  is  not  absolutely 
identical  with  the  categorical  concept  of  comparison, 
because  it  is  in  relation  with  a  limited  number  of  con- 
ditions, which  are  not  perceptible  abstractions  but 
imaginary  ideas,  and  these  we  simply  try  to  explain  as 
they  are  not  evident  to  the  eye.  For  this  reason  we 
must  not  confound  imaginary  with  rational  concepts  ; 
rational  concepts  are  represented  by  direct  abstractions 
of  objective  things,  while  imaginary  concepts  consist  in 
the  mental  application  or  attribution  of  such  abstractions 
to  some  other  things,  as,  for  example,  when  we  imagine 
invisible  movements  from  the  concept  formed  of  those 
which  are  visible. 

The  explanatory  or  fundamental  fact  of  a  hypothesis, 
that  is  to  say,  the  fact  with  which  we  identify  the  case 
we  try  to  explain,  must  be  something  already  proved 
by  experience,  because  we  do  not  learn  anything  by 
endowing  the  objects  with  occult  principles,  as  when 
abstract  forces  are  imagined  in  order  to  explain  how 
manifested  effects  are  produced. 

The  true  cause  can  never  be  known  by  experience, 
and  for  this  reason  the  primordial  or  remote  cause  of 
the  activity  of  nature  cannot  be  included  in  Physiology; 
this  studies  only  phenomena  or  manifested  effects,  and 
the  latent  material  changes  which  are  their  immediate 
cause.  By  comparing  physical  changes  we  infer  the 
general  principles  of  movement — material  activity  ;  and 
the  chief  use  of  a  physiological  hypothesis  ought  to 
be  the  deduction  of  new  cases  from  those  principles, 
employing  in  the  explanation  the  same  terms  applied 
to  observed  phenomena,  and   recognizing  the  analogy 


of  these  with  the  changes  which  we  desire  to  explain. 
But  the  identification  of  the  hypothetical  case  with 
known  facts  may  be  at  the  same  time  partial  and  in- 
direct, supposing  that  there  are  circumstances  yet 
unobserved  in  one  or  in  both  of  the  compared  terms. 
Thus  a  hypothesis  may  comprehend  one  or  more  sup- 
positions if  we  can  prove,  or  at  least  if  we  can  see  the 
possibility  of  its  analogy  with  something  really  observed; 
the  hypothesis  being  more  probable  if  the  identity  is 
clearly  recognized  among  many  phenomena,  and  still 
more,  if  the  identity  exists  among  many  of  the  particu- 
larities of  different  phenomena. 

Accordingly,  a  hypothesis  makes  an  imaginary  re- 
presentation, which,  in  the  same  manner  as  works  of 
art,  bears  a  resemblance  to,  but  is  not  identical  with 
things  observed  or  realities  existing  in  nature.  Con* 
sequently  there  will  be  some  points  of  similarity  and 
difference  between  hypothetic  and  categoric  knowledge, 
as  there  arc  between  a  statue  and  what  it  represents. 
Thus,  for  instance,  when  we  infer  the  invisible  move- 
ments of  imponderable  matter  from  those  which  are 
visible  we  express  an  analogy  of  form  ;  but  as  the 
material  is  different  in  each  case  the  activities  of  the 
two  terms  cannot  be  identical  in  all,  but  only  in  part. 
When  we  imagine  new  forms  of  existence  we  change 
the  combinations,  or,  by  analogy,  the  sensible  properties, 
because  we  can  represent  something  in  our  mind  only 
by  means  of  those  data  given  by  experience,  as  our 
physiological  or  natural  ideas  are  formed  by  sensation. 
It  is  necessary  at  least  in  order  to  acquire  the  character 
of  possibility  that  a  hypothesis  should  not  be  contra- 
dictory either  in  its  own  terms,  or  with  the  facts  which 
our  rational  experience  has  recognized  as  true. 


jijayjaaaJB'^-^"'*"-^*^  ■^"- 


38 


INTRODUCTION. 


We  have  said  that  a  hypothesis  is  more  or  less  prob- 
able according  to  the  cases  of  coincidence  offered  to  our 
observation  ;  but  besides  this  it  needs  the  successive 
confirmation  or  attestation  of  new  facts,  because  it  is 
clearly  seen  that  it  will  become  less  and  less  probable 
if  the  new  facts  cannot  be  explained  without  increasing 
or  modifying  the  first  hypothetical  proposition,  and,  on 
the  contrary,  the  hypothesis  will  acquire  so  much  more 
value  according  as  a  greater  number  of  facts  arise  to 
attest  its  primordial  affirmation.  In  the  same  manner, 
if,  by  means  of  reason  alone,  we  discover  deductions  that 
can  afterwards  be  tested  by  experience,  it  will  increase 
our  certainty  more  and  more  in  favour  of  a  hypothesis. 
Nevertheless,  the  value  of  such  predictions  must  not  be 
exaggerated,  because  they  often  arise  from  very  indirect 
relations,  and  are  without  direct  connection  with  what 
we  try  to  explain  ;  these  coincidences  are  due  to  the 
uniformity  of  the  system.  We  see,  indeed,  that  all  the 
hypotheses  that  have  been  abandoned  as  contradictory 
or  insufficient  have  helped  human  thought  to  foretell 
phenomena  which  have  been  afterwards  observed,  be- 
cause if  a  false  hypothesis  has  explained  many  phe- 
nomena, it  is  not  strange  to  prognosticate  from  it  others 
in  more  or  less  relation  with  those  for  which  the  hypo- 
thesis was  imagined. 

The  validity  of  a  hypothesis  because  it  is  conceiv- 
able has  been  very  much  discussed,  and  this  question 
has  been  generally  confounded  with  the  following 
whose  resolution  is  entirely  metaphysical.  Is  all  that 
is  conceivable  true,  and  the  reverse  ?  It  is  an  evident 
criterion  of  truth  in  physical  propositions  that  the  con- 
tradictory proposition  must  be  inconceivable,  though  on 
metaphysical  grounds  our  incapacity  to  conceive  a  thing 


I 


7.    VALIDITY  OF  HYPOTHESES. 


3? 


is  not  a  proof  of  its  impossibility.  All  true  physiological 
conception  consists  in  establishing  relations  of  identity 
between  the  case  which  our  imagination  must  conceive 
and  the  facts  known  by  rational  experience  ;  therefore, 
in  order  that  a  physiological  hypothesis  should  be  con- 
ceivable, it  must  identify  itself  with  the  ideas  previously 
known,  and  must  have  no  contradictory  terms. 

In  regard  to  the  previous  concepts,  it  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  them  as  categorical  and  hypothetical,  because 
in  the  last  there  is  the  possibility  of  their  being  untrue, 
otherwise  we  should  then  assert  as  a  truth  an  idea  in 
contradiction  with  those  that  were  before  hypothetically 
maintained.  The  inconceivability  of  a  case  in  nature  can 
be  admitted  only  by  disagreement  with  notions  which, 
though  not  completely  and  evidently  proved,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  very  probable.  All  the  inferior  concepts 
regarding  the  object  are  comprehended  in  some  superior 
one,  and  therefore  the  validity  of  a  physiological  hypo- 
thesis requires  mutual  agreement  among  the  concepts 
of  different  rank  which  is  a  guarantee  of  certainty. 
Nevertheless,  scientific  progress  constantly  rectifies 
ideas  previously  admitted  as  true. 

The  false  supposition  of  wrong  hypotheses  generally 
depends  on  the  ontological  error  which  considers  mental 
entities  as  separate  or  independent  realities,  though  they 
are  only  concepts  of  one  or  many  abstractions.  Thus, 
objects  are  frequently  considered  as  existing  independent 
of  their  relations,  and  vice  versa;  and  the  modes  of 
forming  concepts  are  also  erroneously  considered  as 
constituents  of  nature.  All  this,  as  we  shall  see  now, 
is  what  happens  with  the  mistaken  hypotheses  of  the 
doctrines  called  mechanism,  materialism,  evolutionism, 
idealism,  and  pantheism. 


^^taaiMOdateia.  -||||f|MfTliiiri1iiif  |^'^a3toua&jti..%i^« 


r     '   -■' 


40 


INTRODUCTION. 


8.   FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


41 


§  8.  Brief  Criticism  of  Realism,  Eclecticism, 
Scepticism,  and  Empiricism. 

Realism  considers  as  entities  or  beings  of  separate 
existence  the  concepts  and  even  the  conceptual  elements 
which  are  formed  by  mental  abstraction  from  our  ex- 
ternal experiences.  Thus,  also,  it  is  realistic  to  consider 
as  separate  existences  every  one  of  the  different  kinds 
of  phenomena,  as  caloric^  luminous,  magnetic,  and 
electric  agents,  molecular  forces,  planetary  attrac- 
tions, etc. 

{In  Psychological  Theory  this  error  is  also  frequently  found,  namely, 
that  of  individualizing  as  realities  the  different  conscious  activities,  and 
from  thts  results  the  general  admission  of  plurality  instead  of  unity  in  our 
mental  power.] 

There  is  nothing  absolute  in  nature ;  or,  better  to 
say,  our  Imderstanding  does  not  and  cannot  know 
physical  unity,  entity,  or  type  in  absolute,  either  of 
quality  or  of  quantity  ;  there  is  no  absolute  material 
substance,  no  absolute  activity,  no  absolute  space,  and 
no  absolute  time.  We  do  not  objectively  recognize  any- 
thing which  may  be  an  absolute  cause  or  principle  ;  all 
that  is  physiological  (nature)  is  an  effect  or  medium. 
Every  form  of  material  existence  suffers  perpetual 
changes,  undergoes  incessant  mutations  which  are  not 
primordial,  but  derived  by  propagation.  Manifested 
existence  depends  on  mutual  action  among  objects,  and 
on  the  interaction  of  these  with  the  mind  from  which 
we  form  the  relations  of  the  objects,  and  consequently 
all  their  possible  knowledge.  Although  this  is  an 
evident  truth,  the  greatest  minds  occupied  in  scientific 
speculations  forget  it  when  they  suppose  the  ultimate 
elements    or    real    constituents    of    the    world,    atoms^ 


■  I 


*?*' '  ■  -  , 


monads,  etc.,  are  absolute  realities.  Atoms  are  erro- 
neously considered  absolutely  simple  and  indivisible 
as  if  they  were  the  last  elements  of  the  material  world 

the  physical  unities  absolutely  constant  which  by  their 

aggregation  form  the  universe. 

The  operations  of  language  are  comparison,  discrimi- 
nation, and  reasoning.  When  the  capacity  for  classi- 
fication is  lacking,  there  cannot  be  rational  language, 
as  for  this  are  necessary — first,  a  multitude  of  ex- 
periences ;  second,  abstraction  of  the  common  element 
forming  a  unity  ;  third,  formation  of  a  term  for  such 
a  common  element ;  and  fourth,  application  of  the 
same  term  or  name  to  all  the  individuals  of  the  group 
which  gave  rise  to  the  common  element.  For  this 
reason  in  the  root  of  every  noun  we  find  some  abstract 
signification  of  the  most  prominent  character  of  the 
thing  which  it  represents,  and  such  a  character  (abstrac- 
tion) becomes  the  concrete  sign  of  that  thing.  Thus 
language  gives  us  the  tendency  to  fall  into  realism. 

Language  has  a  double  function  ;  it  is  the  extrinsic 
communication  of  thought,  and  it  is  also  its  intrinsic 
reflection  ;  in  this  case  it  shortens  the  work  of  thought 
extraordinarily,  and  it  may  be  said  that  without  language 
neither  thought  nor  knowledge  could  make  any  progress. 
In  the  same  manner  as  a  word  always  expresses  the 
result  of  an  abstraction  and  generalization,  abstractions 
and  generalizations  could  not  fix  themselves  in  the  mind 
without  words,  but  would  disappear  from  it  as  soon  as 
the  moment  of  sensation  passed.  Moreover,  he  who 
studies  a  language  finds  a  wealth  of  knowledge  for  the 
elaboration  of  which  the  activity  of  many  persons  has 
been  necessary.  But  although  language  enables  thought 
to  accumulate  its  products  and  abbreviate  its  process. 


f(M«ifcmtriiA«**«^^.« 


4* 


INTRODUCTION. 


8.   FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


it  is  also  frequently  the  motive  of  errors  such  as  those 
of  realism,  which  we  may  say  are  a  consequence  of 
a  bad  interpretation  of  language,  confounding  names 
with  the  things  themselves,  and  giving  a  real  signification 
to  that  which  is  purely  an  ideal  concept.  To  avoid  this 
mistake  thought  with  sharp  criticism  must  keep  a  con- 
stant watch  over  language  so  that  it  may  serve  as  an 
instrument  fit  for  its  purpose,  and  not  allow  us  to  fall 
into  absurd  equivocations. 

Let  us,  then,  keep  in  mind  that  the  most  disturbing 
element  of  the  criterion  of  truth  in  science  is  defective 
and  false  language,  because,  as  the  elements  of  thought 
can  be  differently  combined  in  perception,  any  fault  or 
impropriety  in  association  of  ideas,  and  in  the  terms 
which  represent  them,  or  in  any  other  mental  connection 
may  lead  to  error.  We  must  be  especially  cautious  in 
the  use  of  equivocal  terms,  and  avoid  realistic  technicism, 
which  leads  us  into  the  error  of  considering  as  real 
existences  the  abstract  ideas  of  quality  and  quantity. 

Hence  it  is  an  absurdity  when  philosophers  impose 
on  the  mind  work  which  goes  beyond  the  limit  of  its 
conceptions,  comparing  these  with  reality  ;  for  reality 
cannot  be  known  in  itself  but  only  as  it  appears  to  our 
mind.  For  this  reason  the  ultimate  proof  of  our  know- 
ledge must  be  the  signification  contained  in  words,  not 
direct  realities,  but  ideas  which  we  have  or  which  we 
form  about  them.  Such  a  proof  of  what  knowledge 
contains  will  consist  in  the  suitable  evidence  or  necessity 
of  the  conception  and  in  the  harmony  of  our  concep- 
tions among  themselves.  That  is  to  say,  at  the  end  of 
our  investigations  we  arrive  at  concepts  that  cannot  be 
proved  by  reasoning,  or  communicated  by  language ; 
every  subject  must  acquire  them  by  himself,  and  conse- 


43 


quently  if  such  concepts  are  to  be  explained  in  any 
manner  it  can  only  be  done  by  means  of  synonymous 
expressions.  Such  ultimate  propositions  are  the 
foundation  of  theoretical  science.  Accordingly,  in 
realism,  as  in  all  false  doctrines,  we  find  the  same  cause 
of  error  which  probably  originates  in  confusion  or  mis- 
interpretation of  the  terms  employed,  because  they  con- 
tradict the  following  evident  principle  :  the  definite 
cannot  be  derived  from  the  indefinite,  as  a  definite  con- 
clusion can  never  be  inferred  from  indefinite  premises  ; 
the  indefinite  is  the  basis  of  and  leads  to  nothing,  it  is 
in  itself  nothing,  and  from  nothing  nothing  can  come. 

Eclecticism.  The  actual  world  manifests  harmonic 
plurality  in  all  parts  ;  constant  intercourse  taking  place 
in  nature  where  gains  and  losses  occur  uniformly  in 
direct  succession.  Therefore  we  cannot  consider  the 
world  as  a  conjunction  of  unitary  and  immutable  things, 
unless,  following  the  eclectics,  we  force  our  belief  against 
the  true  existence  of  objects  by  considering  all  the 
phenomenal  world  as  a  complete  illusion.  But  to  con- 
sider object  as  mere  illusion  is  an  idea  incompatible 
with  all  the  fundamental  principles  of  Philosophy,  and 
conduces  to  the  negation  of  all  knowledge ;  besides,  if 
every  object  were  one  and  immutable,  how  could  the 
illusion  of  the  plurality  and  changes  of  things  ever  take 
place  in  our  mind  ? 

Scepticism  can  be  recognized  only  when  a  careful 
and  complete  analysis  and  definition  of  a  point  or 
question  cannot  control  the  discordance  and  contra- 
diction in  our  mind.  But  even  sceptics  admit  the 
priority  of  some  knowledge,  they  presuppose  continuity 
of  space  in  reality,  that  is,  immediate  contact  among 
things  in  order  that  the  action  of  one  should  directly 


.-^w 

.-•«l 


4i 


INTRODUCTION. 


8.   FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


4S 


affect  the  other ;  and  they  admit  the  validity  of  the 
universal  laws  of  thought — those  of  identity  and  con- 
tradiction. But  if  they  accept  these  principles  they 
must  also  accept  their  consequences.  So  we  must  now 
state  the  ultimate  evident  truths  and  their  necessary 
conclusions  in  order  to  prove  the  falsity  of  scepticism. 

Among  intrinsic  intuitions  there  are  some  which  are 
first  principles,  not  derived  but  necessary  as  self-evident 
truths,  and  which  are  in  the  same  case  as  our  ultimate 
thoughts,  that  is,  in  the  same  case  as  are  the  supreme 
principles  of  reflection — limit  of  the  intelligence.  Such 
principles  cannot  be  explained,  in  truth  there  are  no 
words  by  which  we  can  comprehend  them,  and  for 
this  reason  they  cannot  be  known  if  not  directly 
perceived  by  our  own  intelligence  or  understanding. 

The  terms  which  express  intuitions  and  ultimate 
thoughts  constitute  the  principles  of  scientific  language, 
they  being  the  foundation  of  propositions,  and  hence  of 
inferences  and  calculations.  Let  us  first  see  the  basis  of 
thought  and  language  which  represents  the  immediate 
reaction  of  the  mental  subject.  The  first  intrinsic 
intuitions  are  the  affirmation  of  our  own  subjective 
existence,  and  the  consciousness  of  its  activity  as  it  is 
revealed  to  us  by  the  emotions  of  pleasure  and  pain. 
The  first  extrinsic  perceptions  are  the  affirmation  of  a 
world  of  objects  which  exist  outside  of  our  mind,  and  the 
activity  of  such  objects  in  order  that  they  may  incite 
sensations.  We  must  remember  that  neither  intrinsic 
intuitions  nor  extrinsic  perceptions  produce  mature 
perceptions  until  they  have  become  food  for  thought, 
and  for  this  reason  they  are  postponed  to  the  following 
principles  which  are  the  first  axioms  of  discursive 
laneua^e — the  laws  of  thought. 


^, 


We  admit  and  recognize  a  general  assertion  as  a 
fundamental  law  of  language,  which  is  called  the 
principle  of  contradiction  ;  according  to  this  what  we 
affirm  of  one  thing  we  cannot  affirm  of  the  contrary,  as 
its  negation  is  implied  in  its  enunciation.  To  this 
principle  is  united  that  of  consistency  resulting  from  the 
synonymous  or  tautological  forms  of  language,  which 
permit  us  to  affirm  the  same  thing  in  different  ways  ; 
and  this  is  the  only  resource  we  have  for  the  definition 
of  ultimate  terms  because  they  cannot  be  explained  or 
defined  by  means  of  true  propositions. 

We   admit    and    recognize   also   three    fundamental 
principles    of   mental    reflection.       One    refers    to    the 
comparisons  of  quality,  and  for  this  reason  it  must  be 
considered  as  the  universal  assertion  of  attribution  ;  this 
is  that  nature  is  uniform  in  its  activity,  which  implies  a 
law  of  causation  in  the  universe  and  not  chaos.     The 
other  two  principles  refer  to  the  comparisons  of  quan- 
tity, and  consequently  we  must  consider  them  as  the 
fundamental  axioms  of  cosmic  relations  or  physiological 
knowledge.     Such  are,  first,  that  quantity   is  equal   in 
different  relations  if  it  is  equal  in  any  two  of  them — 
that  is,  if  they  are  compared  two  by  two  the  result  is 
equal  ;    and    second,   the   sums  of  equal   quantities  are 
also  equal  among  themselves.     From  these  two  ultimate 
principles    we   derive   all    the    axioms    and    rules    that 
govern  calculation  or  mathematical  language,  by  means 
of  which  we  can  discover  the  scientific  connections  of 
objects  in  their  continuous  changes  of  space  and  time. 

Accordingly,  the  main  guide  of  mental  elaboration 
for  the  physiologist  is  to  be  found  in  mathematics,  as 
pure  logic  is  the  sole  guide  for  the  metaphysician  ; 
logic  being   circumscribed  to  the  art  of  guiding  us  in 


46 


INTRODUCTION, 


9.   FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


47 


qualitative  reasoning  ;  that  is,  to  the  different  states  of 
consciousness  by  which  we  elevate  our  ideas  to  super- 
sensual  regions  :  Mind  and  Supreme  Being. 

Empiricism.  By  observation  we  acquire  one  by  one 
abstract  perceptions  only,  so  experience  in  this  sense  is 
exclusively  analytical.  But  reason  works,  not  only  in 
analytic  mental  operations,  but  also  in  synthetic,  and 
must  besides  necessarily  reflect  even  on  the  first  expe- 
riences in  order  to  elaborate  knowledge ;  therefore  the 
so-called  empirical  laws  of  nature  cannot  be  said  to 
emanate  directly  from  the  senses.  A  theory  is  judged 
by  reason  and  not  by  the  senses,  as  the  jurisdiction  of 
these  can  only  serve  to  accumulate  ideas  which  are 
afterwards  elaborated  as  scientific  by  means  of  the 
generalizations  of  reasoning. 

Strictly  speaking,  empiricism  means  that  some  facts 
in  mutual  connection  have  been  discovered  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  reason  of  such  a  connection.  In  this 
sense  empiricism  simply  asserts  that  we  do  not  know 
everything  ;  but  this  is  so  trivial  a  statement  that  there 
is  no  need  of  upholding  schools  in  order  to  maintain  it. 

According  to  the  most  ordinary  signification,  em- 
piricism means  to  assert  that  we  are  satisfied  within  the 
limit  of  our  sensual  experience,  forgetting  calculations  and 
scientific  inferences.  But  this  does  not  satisfy  the  most 
insignificant  thinker,  even  though  he  should  call  himself 
an  empiric  ;  every  one  feels  impulsed  to  follow  more  or 
less  closely  the  current  of  progressive  science,  which 
treats  of  the  discovery  of  the  correlation  that  necessarily 
exists  between  the  infinite  variety  of  facts  and  the  unity 
of  principle  ;  and  this  can  be  sufficiently  proved  in  order 
to  be  recognized  and  adopted.  Notwithstanding  this, 
there   are   different   personal  degrees   of  mental  satis- 


) 


faction,  and  from  this  a  variety  of  opinions  arises  on  this 
point,  all  more  or  less  empirical  and  yet  none  empirical 
in  absolute. 

With  the  universal  conception  that  all  the  facts  of 
relation  (that  is  to  say,  the  mechanical  or  physiological) 
are  at  bottom  matter  in  movement,  we  can  explain  all 
kinds  of  activity  discovered  by  the  senses,  those  extrinsic 
means  of  existence  which  constitute  the  inorganic  world, 
as  well  as  the  phenomena  of  living  beings  which  constitute 
the  organized  world.  Such  an  assertion  can  be  derived 
by  pure  reasoning,  because  a  calculation  on  quantity  is 
an  elaborate  reflection  on  relative  propositions  which 
our  intelligence  can  make  a  priori^  without  any  experi- 
mental proof  of  the  resulting  conclusions.  In  this 
manner  the  simple  determinations  of  space  and  time  are 
acquired,  and  so  also  are  the  quantitative  compound 
determinations  of  mass,  velocity,  and  force.  In  all  these 
notions  of  abstract  quantity,  which  are  determined  by 
means  of  Mathematics,  the  relations  can  be  known  as 
evident  though  they  are  obtained  by  pure  reason. 


§  9.  Brief  Criticism  of  Monism,  Pantheism, 
Idealism,  Materialism,  Transformism,  and 
Atomism. 

All  philosophical  doctrines  that  are  of  any  con- 
sequence can  be  grouped  under  two  denominations — 
Monism  and  Deism.  The  doctrines  which  refer  all 
things  and  changes  to  a  single  ultimate  constituent  are 
monistic.  True  Deism  is  neither  Monism  nor  Dualism  ; 
it  does  not  recognize  two  principles  as  Dualism,  nor 
only  one  common  essence  as  Monism  does ;  it  admits 


48 


INTRODUCTION. 


9.   FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


49 


a    principle    or    Creator,    and    a   consequence — things 
created  (rational  and  irrational). 

There  are  three  chief  kinds  of  Monism;  the  mate- 
rialistic monism  of  the  transformists ;  the  idealistic 
monism  of  Fichte  and  Schopenhauer ;  and  the  pan- 
theistic monism  of  Spinoza.  All  monistic  doctrines 
consider  as  unity  all  and  every  one  of  the  parts  of  the 
universe,  that  is  to  say,  the  conceptual  element  of 
ultimate  generalization  —  primitive  atoms,  monads, 
nebulae,  mental  spirit,  essential  substance,  or  something 
unknowable  and  capable  of  a  triple  aspect,  objective 
(material),  subjective  (mental)  and  omnipotent  at  the 
same  time.  To-day  most  monists  explain  the  universe 
as  a  sum  with  different  degrees  of  aggroupation,  form- 
ing the  atom  in  the  inorganic  ground,  and  the  cellule 
in  the  organic,  and  they  consider  the  monad  as  the 
common  element.  Thus  the  monists  see  the  atom  as 
a  corpuscle  with  its  own  action,  all  the  phenomena  of 
bodies  depending  on  the  sum  of  their  atomic  activities, 
and  they  say  that  cellules  live,  each  one  by  itself  with 
an  autonomy  whose  synergetic  or  co-operating  mani- 
festations constitute  among  them  the  apparent  unity  of 
life  in  superior  beings.  That  is  to  say,  they  consider 
atomic  and  cellular  elements  as  personalities  which 
work  automatically  with  pre-established  harmony  in  the 
common  work  of  the  republic  which  they  constitute  after 
this  conglomerate  fashion.  For  the  monist  the  organism 
is  born,  develops,  and  acts  because  the  special  attribute 
of  life  is  inherent  to  it,  embodying  in  itself  the  cause 
and  effect  of  its,  activity  ;  so  Monism  admits  that  the 
first  organic  creation  was  produced  by  itself  without 
anything  aggregating  or  concurring  to  give  it  activity  ; 
that  is,  monists  do  not  see  in  living  bodies  anything 


\ 


more  than  the  proper  conditions  of  matter.  Vitality, 
then,  which  is  a  potential  and  phenomenal  synthesis, 
would  in  such  a  case  be  a  primordial  causal  activity  of 
matter,  and  not  the  effect  of  something  else. 

Monism  involves  Transformism,  and,  of  course, 
Atheism,  either  materialistic,  or  idealistic,  or  else  pan- 
theistic ;  it  implies  at  the  same  time  spontaneity, 
automatism,  or  specific  attribution ;  all  this  is  evi- 
dently anti-scientific,  and  the  monists  themselves  abne- 
gate its  admission  on  principle,  although  they  have 
fallen  into  the  consequences  of  such  errors.  It  cannot 
be  admitted  in  absolute  that  there  is  an  effect  without  a 
cause,  or  a  consequent  without  an  antecedent;  neverthe- 
less the  monistic  doctrine  does  not  recognize  in  the 
cellule  more  power  than  the  resultant  of  the  sum  of 
atomic  unities,  which  the  monists  simply  consider  either 
as  ultimate  elements  or  as  a  conglomeration  of  monads. 
But  mechanical  power,  that  is,  the  power  of  which  those 
particles  are  capable,  is  reduced  to  the  formula  r  <  f 
(manifest  resultant  is  less  than  the  loss  of  living  force). 
Whence,  then,  comes  the  vital  or  generating  power  whose 
formula  in  Cosmos  is  r  >/  that  is  to  say,  the  resultant 
greater  than  the  force  employed  ?  If  we  try  to  explain 
this  by  the  sum  of  material  elements,  there  is  no  other 
way  than  the  implication  of  spontaneity,  automatism 
or  specific  properties  in  matter.  This  is  evidently 
mathematical,  and,  strange  contradiction,  contempo- 
raneous monists  recognize  with  great  ardour  the  prin- 
ciple of  conservation  according  to  which  the  cosmic 
formula  is  R  =  F,  that  is,  the  whole  resultant  (potential 
and  phenomenal)  equal  to  the  force  employed,  and  base 
it  on  true,  positive,  experimental  proofs,  though  this, 
rightly  interpreted,  is  contradictory  to  their  doctrine. 

E 


so 


INTRO  D  UCTION. 


We  will  see  that  the  spontaneity  of  certain  changes 
is  only  apparent.  It  is  very  common  in  inorganic 
matter,  and  constantly  occurring  in  organic,  that  in 
order  to  produce  changes  it  is  enough  to  provoke  them 
without  the  concurrence  of  a  determined  or  efficient 
exterior  cause,  because  the  body  in  which  the  changes 
operate  previously  contained  sufficient  conditions  to 
produce  phenomena  or  functions  by  the  influence  of 
a  living  energy  much  less  manifest  than  the  consequence. 
As  patent  examples  we  may  take  the  explosion  of  gun- 
powder, or  the  development  of  a  chicken  in  an  ^g^. 
The  force  which  is  then  made  manifest  had  been  before 
accumulated  in  a  latent  state. 

Neither  living  nor  inorganic  bodies  can  be  formed 
by  an  evolution  of  simple  propagation  from  a  monadic, 
primitive  constitution  of  the  universe  in  self-transforma- 
tion, without  any  more  than  the  first  created  impulse. 
In  living  bodies  there  is  no  simple  propagation  ;  there  is 
a  multiplication  in  the  individual  and  in  the  species,  and 
therefore,  in  order  to  avoid  falling  into  palpable  con- 
tradictions, we  must  admit  that  all  the  changes  of 
existence  obey  an  engendered  evolution  and  not  a 
simple  transformation.  In  such  generation  nothing  is 
newly  created,  but  all  changes  become  manifest  in  their 
origin  by  converting  latent  energy  into  phenomena 
when  organic  constructions  are  developed  ;  which  is  an 
act  contrary  to  those  of  mechanism.  In  the  incubation 
of  eggs,  for  instance,  we  already  see  a  great  gain  of  living 
energy,  because  chickens  are  formed  simply  by  keeping 
eggs  at  the  same  temperature.  The  result  of  such  a 
change  in  organism  is  completely  contrary  to  that  which 
takes  place  in  any  inorganic  machine. 

Mechanicians  are  monists  when  they  do  not  recog- 


9.   FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


51 


nize  in  the  universe  anything  but  the  existence  of 
movement.  Physicists  fall  into  the  same  error  when 
they  elevate  the  abstract  idea  of  the  unity  of  force  to 
the  rank  of  unique  reality.  Chemists  are  monists  in 
supposing  atomic  unity.  Monism  has  also  intruded  into 
Biology  as  an  effect  of  the  mistakes  of  some  analytical 
speculations,  by  considering  as  an  ultimate  causing  prin- 
ciple that  which  is  the  end  or  finality  in  the  succession 
of  the  acts  of  nature,  and  conceiving  vital  synthesis  as 
a  real  independent  existence  ;  from  this  error  arise  the 
schools  of  transformism  of  organic  evolution  which 
pretend  to  see  the  reason  of  change  in  matter  alone. 

Materialism  completely  inverts  the  order  of  reality, 
because  simple  abstractions,  that  is  to  say,  those  which 
offer  the  most  elevated,  most  general,  and  most  compre- 
hensive concepts,  and  which  are  the  ultimate  principles, 
are  considered  by  them,  not  only  as  the  first  concepts, 
but  also  as  the  most  realistic  of  all  the  forms  of  existing 
things.  Such  an  error  arises  from  the  false  supposition 
that  the  general  abstraction  of  all  things  constitutes 
their  common  substance  as  a  permanent  substratum, 
aggregating  to  this  the  attributes  and  particular  proper- 
ties by  which  objects  are  differentiated,  so  that,  according 
to  such  a  supposition,  subjective  realities  are  considered 
as  an  aggregate  of  substance  and  energy,  essence  and 
accidents,  matter  and  force,  or  mass  and  movement ; 
but  if  such  elements  are  not  realities,  no  real  object  can 
be  produced  by  their  union.  Materialism  supposes 
substance  as  a  union  of  passive,  resistant  and  unalter- 
able particles  (atomic  unities) ;  and  considers  energy  as 
an  active  force  equally  unalterable,  to  which  the  ad- 
vocates of  this  theory  attribute  all  phenomena. 

Evolutionism     or    transformism ^    like    materialism, 


52 


INTRODUCTION. 


supposes  that  the  real  objective  forms  are  contained  or 
implied  in  the  superior  forms  or  ultimate  concepts,  the 
former  being  derived   from  the  latter   by  an   inherent 
process  of  evolution  or  development,   asserting  that  a 
constant  quantity  of  force   naturally  belongs  to  every 
part  of  matter,  and  that  all  transformations  are   pro- 
duced by  a  simple   differentiation    in  such   primordial 
force.     Matter,  according   to  this  doctrine,  is  endowed 
with  the  power  of  the  Primordial  Cause  (God),  engen- 
dering by  itself  the  activity  of  nature,  as  all  differing 
existing   realities    and    all    forms  of  energy,  including 
vitality,  would  then  be  potentially  contained  in  matter, 
successively    manifesting    themselves    by    a    kind    of 
natural  emanation  in  a  spontaneous,  gradual  develop- 
ment  of  ulterior   evolution.     When    transformists  say 
that  matter  incloses  or  implies  in  its  own  origin  the 
forms  and  qualities  of  life,  containing  them  potentially 
at  least,  if  not  actually,  in  order  that  they  should  be 
engendered   by   a   spontaneous   development,  they   do 
no  more  than  use  the  qualification  of  potence  as  a  shield 
for  ignorance  of  the  cause,  and  thus  persuade  them- 
selves that  they  can  deny  the  purpose  and  finality  of 
the  Cause  which  directs  the   system  of  the   universe. 
We  will  see  in  the  last  chapter  of  this  book,  that  the 
formula  of  evolution  is  to  reduce  all  the  states  of  actual 
manifestation   to  one   having  the   power  of  becoming 
manifest ;    thus  transformism  pretends  to  conceive  the 
universe   in   some   state   anterior   to   the   phenomenal, 
without   explaining    anything   of    the   engendering  of 
matter   or   objective  reality  in  which   phenomena   are 
manifestly  produced  by  simple  propagation  or   trans- 
ference of  movement. 

The  errors  of  evolutionism  have  conduced  to  nihilism, 


9.  FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


53 


according  to  which  all  is  engendered  by  "  the  void," 
that  is,  by  nothing,  or  by  a  pure  substance  completely 
devoid  of  attributes;  scientific  nihilism  expressly  de- 
clares that  such  a  substance  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  nothing,  and  consequently  is  identical  with  it  ; 
thus  pretending  to  deduce  the  phenomenal  world  from 
the  supposed  concept  of  nothing,  i.e.  zero.  The  sub- 
stantial nothing,  as  an  origin  of  all  existing  things,  has 
been  also  expressed  in  another  manner,  by  supposing 
that  the  germinal  principle  is  an  impersonal  will,  which, 
being  contradictory  in  its  own  expressed  attributes, 
will  also  result  in  an  empty  concept,  i.e.  non-existence 

or  nothing. 

Atomism  (that  of  the  Greek  atomists,  as  well  as  of 
their  followers,  the  modern  physicists)  has  also  failed  to 
observe  the   conditions  of  the  problem    regarding   the 
common  existence  of  a  pure   being  in  nature,  since  it 
considers  atoms  as  the  sole  realities,  endowed  with  self- 
existence   and  complete   independence.     Such  an  idea 
is  taken  entirely  from  the  illusions  of  sensual  or  irre- 
flexive  experience,   and  it  is  a  contradiction  with  the 
most   rational    inference    according    to   which    objects 
necessarily  constitute  a  true  system  in  the  universe.     If 
objects  were  independent,  that  is  to  say,  if  they  could 
exist  indifferent  to  one  another,  and  so  without  mutual 
relation,  how  could   we   explain   the   actions   and   de- 
pendences which  we  observe  in  the  actual  world  1      It 
would   be  impossible   to   explain   them,  because   indi- 
vidual   independence    excludes    community,   which   is 
necessary    in    a    system   of    things    mutually   related. 
With  such  an  atomic  conception  of  matter,  the  theory 
advanced  by  most  authors  up  to  the  present  time  be- 
comes useless  for  the  purpose  of  physiological  science, 


54 


INTRODUCTION. 


FALSE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTRINES. 


55 


which  must  distinguish  natural  changes  into  pheno- 
menal and  latent ;  the  former  are  the  changes  which 
are  extrinsically  manifested  to  us  by  means  of  the 
senses  ;  and  the  latter  are  the  changes  which  are  not 
manifested,  but  which  explain  the  propagation  of  move- 
ment in  the  acts  of  loss  and  reparation  of  living  energy 
or  phenomenal  force. 

It  is  an  evident  necessity  to  conceive  matter  in  such 
a  manner  that  we  can  clearly  explain  all  that  is  mani- 
fested in  the  universe,  and  these  changes  being  defined 
and  determined,  the  atom  or  corporeal  element  cannot 
be  a  thing  undefined  or  undetermined.  Again,  we  say 
it  is  an  evident  truth  that  one  thing  cannot  be  primarily 
considered  as  indefinite  and  afterwards  as  an  object  of 
definite  determinations  ;  it  is  a  self-evident  truth  that 
the  definite  can  proceed  only  from  the  definite,  and 
that  the  indefinite  (not  confounding  this  with  the  undc- 
finable  or  illimitable — that  which  is  beyond  the  reach 
of  our  mind)  cannot  produce  anything  intelligible.  It 
is  as  impossible  to  deduce  the  definite  from  the  inde- 
finite as  to  obtain  movement  from  repose,  or  a  being 
out  of  nothing. 

No  argument  is  necessary  to  prove  this  self-asser- 
tion ;  to  grasp  it  we  need  only  understand  the  terms 
which  are  employed.  Nevertheless,  many  thinkers, 
and  among  them  perhaps  the  most  notable  among  our 
contemporary  physicists,  uphold  the  idea  that  matter 
is  constituted  by  centres  of  indefinite  action  which  are 
without  extension  and  are  supposed  to  be  endowed  with 
influence  acting  at  a  distance  in  a  spherical  space  that 
must  of  course  have  some  extension.  This  is  untenable 
— still  more,  it  is  incomprehensible,  and  can  only  be 
admitted   as    an   unknown    quantity — an    "  x "   in    the 


speculative  process  of  calculation  on  physical  pheno- 
mena. Hence,  it  is  an  unresolved  problem,  as  those 
who  uphold  the  theory  under  notice  start  with  an 
imaginary  phrase  to  represent  the  atom  when  they 
consider  it  as  a  mathematical  point— without  length, 
breadth,  or  thickness. 

The  false  universal  notion  of  common  being  is 
nothing  more  than  the  result  of  the  pernicious  influence 
of  the  erroneous  doctrines  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
scholastics  with  their  distinction  between  matter  and 
form,  as  the  supposed  infinite  substance  of  Spinoza; 
the  absolute  being  of  Schelling  ;  and  the  absolute  idea 
of  Hegel.     The  last  three  are  old  abstractions  expressed 

in  new  words. 

Nature  cannot  be  conceived  as  definite  in  itself,  for 
we  cannot  refer  to  it  nor  form  an  estimate  of  it,  save 
by  our  purposes  and  perceptions.  But  the  current 
theories  of  nature  are  built  on  the  false  base  of  the 
abstraction  of  being  as  indefinite  and  immutable,  admit- 
ting abstract  forces  in  nature,  which,  they  say,  act, 
determining  and  changing  the  conditions  of  being.  The 
doctrine  of  Cosmogony  according  to  Spencer,  Darwin, 
Haeckel,  etc.,  is  equal  at  bottom  to  the  idealism  of 
Hegel,  to  the  pantheism  of  Schelling  and  Spinoza,  and 
to  the'ancient  speculations  of  Platonism  which  imagine 
things  as  the  product  of  the  union  of  the  idea  with 
indefinite  existence;  and,  finally,  it  is  also  identical 
with  the  scholasticism  which  used  to  give  the  name 
"  form  "  to  such  ideas  as  those  which  we  directly  dis- 
cover by  sensual  or  extrinsic  observations. 

The  conceptual  elements  of  objective  being  or  real 
nature  are  four :  two  are  attributive  abstractions— sub- 
stance and  activity  (abstractions  of  an  entity  in  itselQ  ; 


56 


INTRODUCTION. 


and  the  other  two  are  relative  abstractions — space 
and  time  (abstraction  of  different  entities  among  them- 
selves). When  an  entity  is  not  defined  its  four  ab- 
stractions are  also  indefinite,  and  from  this  arises 
chimerical,  ontological  concepts  ;  and  when  the  entity- 
is  defined  by  our  sensual  observation  or  experience, 
then  the  four  elemental  abstractions  are  also  defined, 
and  from  this  arise  true  physiological  concepts.  When 
this  distinction  is  not  well  established,  the  metaphysician, 
influenced  by  ontological  errors,  leans  to  pantheism  and 
idealism ;  and  for  the  same  reason  the  physicist  or 
naturalist  usually  falls  into  atomism,  atheism,  and 
materialism.  If  these  abstractions  in  regard  to  the 
Infinite  Being  are  confounded  with  the  finite,  we  then 
fall  into  the  error  of  considering  them  as  really  existing, 
not  in  the  Divinity,  but  in  themselves  ;  and  if  the  ab- 
stractions regarding  the  finite  being  or  nature  are  con- 
sidered as  exclusive  existences,  the  result  is  the  false 
supposition  that  matter  is  in  itself  alone  the  only  prin- 
ciple of  the  universe,  and  nature  then  should  be 
governed  by  itself  alone,  as  is  the  idea  of  atomism. 

Therefore,  we  must  proclaim  monotheism  in  science, 
thus  proving  our  agreement  with  religion  in  the  belief  in 
only  one  true  God  as  the  Causal  Unity  of  the  Universe, 
and  reject  all  abstract  or  causing  forces  in  nature. 

§  lo.  Province  of  General  Physiology. 

The  supreme  principles  of  Philosophy  offer  two 
different  concepts  ;  one  unlimited,  indefinite,  intrinsic  to 
thought  alone ;  the  other  limited,  definite,  and  extrinsic, 
being  within  the  reach  of  our  senses.  The  first  concept, 
which   is   purely   subjective,   is   metaphysical,  and   the 


10.  PROVINCE  OF  GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


57 


second,  which  is  objective,  is  physical  or  physiological, 
this  last  word  signifying  what  is  perceptible  in  the 
material  world,  or  what  is  commonly  called  Nature  ; 
this  alone  is  within  the  province  of  Physiology. 

The  starting-point  of  thought  in  following  the  pro- 
cess of  mental  elaboration  is  the  comparison  of  sensa- 
tions, and  these  are  of  two  kinds,  intrinsic  (subjective) 
and  extrinsic  (objective).  The  assertion  is  completely 
different  in  accordance  with  the  class  of  premises  of 
thought ;  the  assertions  of  intrinsic  sensations  or  intui- 
tions are  purely  mental  (immaterial,  spiritual,  meta- 
physical knowledge),  while  the  truths  inferred  from 
extrinsic  sensation,  though  taking  intuitions  as  a  base, 
are  material,  that  is  to  say,  physiological  knowledge. 
To  metaphysical  knowledge  the  mental  ego  has  in  itself 
an  exclusive  right,  as  nobody  but  one's  self  can  directly 
perceive  the  acts  of  self-consciousness.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  limit  of  physiological  or  natural  knowledge, 
that  is  to  say,  of  the  knowledge  about  extrinsic  or 
objective  things,  is  experience  ;  so  that  nature  or  object 
is  equally  common  to  the  observation  of  all  minds,  i.e. 
the  perception  of  its  changes  is  the  common  right  of 
everybody. 

We  have  adopted  the  title,  ''  Universal  Physiology," 
to  comprehend  the  whole  abstract  knowledge  of  material 
nature  or  physical  cosmos ;  its  province,  then,  is  the 
conceptual  analysis  and  synthesis  of  Cosmic  Mechanism, 
unifying  all  the  theories  of  Physics,  Chemistry,  and 
Biology.  We  have  divided  Universal  Physiology  into 
General  and  Special,  and  subdivided  each  of  these 
departments  into  analytical  and  synthetical ;  all  com- 
prehending nature  in  the  abstract  sense.  Cosmos  is 
effectually  an  organic  system  whose  special  analysis  has 


58 


INTRODUCTION. 


lo.   PROVINCE   OF  GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


59 


been  the  subject  of  our  work,  "  Theory  of  Physics,"  and 
whose  special  but  partial  synthesis  is  the  subject  of 
"  Abstract  Biology  ; "  our  "  General  Physiology,"  then, 
must  occupy  itself  with  the  study  of  the  abstract 
analysis  and  synthesis  of  Cosmic  Mechanism  in  its  most 
comprehensive  ideas,  without  taking  into  consideration 
the  knowledge  of  every  special  change. 

Mechanism  is  not  a  thing  really  independent ;  it  is 
the  concept  of  an  abstraction  from  objective  or  material 
nature,  making  the  elision  of  the  Primordial  Cause. 
We  cannot  explain  the  creation  of  matter,  nor  the 
primordial  determination  or  generation  of  manifested 
or  living  change  in  organism  ;  but  we  may  refer  to  the 
subject  of  vitality  and  say  that  it  is  the  Supreme  Power, 
and  not  a  transference  from  mechanical  energy,  because 
this  does  not  suppose  anything  more  than  matter  in 
movement  under  the  different  forms  of  secondary 
activity.  The  proofs  of  this  assertion  are  the  impossi- 
bility of  affirming  the  contrary,  and  the  principle  of 
conservation. 

The  uniformity  in  the  order  of  the  universe  compels 
us  to  admit  that  it  is  an  organized  system,  for  which 
we  must  recognize  an  Organizer  whose  power  is  not 
directly  manifested  in  any  form  of  matter  save  organ- 
isms. Hence,  God  as  Organizer  is  the  principle  of 
vitality — that  is  to  say,  vitality  must  be  considered  as 
the  only  activity  really  originated,  and  such  primordially 
derived  unity  is  the  proximate  cause  of  phenomenal 
motion  in  cosmos.  This  idea  must  take  the  place  of 
that  host  of  abstract  forces  admitted  by  authors  as 
exciting  the  world  to  action.  Physico-chemical  forces 
are  only  the  result  of  movements  ;  they  are  not  causes, 
and  still  less  can  they  have  the  conditions  of  intelligence 


< 


necessary  to  accomplish  the  determined  principle  and 
final  aim  of  the  system. 

The  prime  influence  which  governs  living  bodies  is 
a  perpetual  miracle,  and  the  only  one  of  this  kind 
constant  in  the  world  ;  we  can  only  know  it  by  the 
continuous  effects  it  originates  in  organism — first  in 
imponderable  material  or  progene,  and  secondly  in  the 
continual  transference  of  ponderable  matter  in  and 
among  different  bodies.  In  nature  there  will  always 
remain  this  eternal  mystery  to  us  :  the  continual  creation 
of  phenomenal  activity  in  organism,  which  is  revealed 
to  us  under  two  forms — generation  of  new  beings  or 
multiplication,  and  growth  or  development  of  living 
beings.  The  other  changes  of  nature  exist  in  a  con- 
tinuous succession,  keeping  reciprocal  equivalence  among 
themselves,  and  can  be  perfectly  explained  as  conse- 
quences of  vitality ;  while  the  reverse  we  have  proved 
is  an  impossibility. 

Physiology  occupies  itself  in  acquiring  the  know- 
ledge of  what  is  extrinsically  manifested,  and  of  that 
which,  although  latent,  is  directly  derived  from  pheno- 
mena, the  differences  in  the  material  world  not  being 
absolute  or  essential,  but  formal  ;  that  is  to  say,  they 
are  quantitative  differences  more  or  less,  either  in  the 
numerical  measure  of  physical  energy,  or  in  the  geo- 
metrical measure  of  extension. 

Objects  are  only  known  by  the  perception  of  the 
relations  among  themselves,  and  among  such  relative 
differences  our  mind  discovers  an  exact  correlation 
among  the  same  objective  changes  when  their  succession 
is  inverted,  and  such  a  correlation  is  nothing  more  than 
the  fact  or  law  of  conservation  of  physical  energy, 
including  in  this,  not  only  manifested,  but  also  latent 


««fi 


60 


INTRODUCTION. 


10.   PROVINCE   OF  GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY, 


61 


energy.  We  have  already  said  that  in  all  relations  there 
is  a  common  standard  of  comparison  ;  this  is  quantity ; 
and  the  conservation  of  the  same  energy  is  the  reason 
of  the  unity  of  the  material  system,  abstracting  from  it 
the  Primordial  Cause,  that  is  to  say,  considering  the 
world  in  its  derived  activities  as  a  mechanism.  Accord- 
ingly, Physiology  in  the  sense  of  Universal  Mechanics 
is  a  science  treating  only  of  motion  which  produces 
effects  manifested  to  the  senses,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
which  has  movement  as  form  of  activity  and  which  con- 
stitutes the  material  or  natural  object. 

In  Physiology  (comprehending  the  whole  science  of 
nature)  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  object  pursued  is 
partial ;  that  this  science  does  not  comprehend  all  know- 
ledge, and  therefore  must  not  deny  the  existence  of 
those  sciences  which  treat  of  that  which  is  beyond  our 
extrinsic  sensations,  and  that  the  inquiry  into  Meta- 
physics (Theology  and  Subjective  Psychology)  is  of 
quite  a  different  order  from  the  inquiry  into  Physiology. 
Any  sensation  implies  the  perception  of  a  difference 
among  all  manifested  things,  for  uniformity  in  percep- 
tion in  a  practical  sense  is  equal  to  absolute  lack  of 
sensation.  Without  a  change  in  the  perceptions,  no 
phenomena  whatever  could  be  made  manifest  to  us  ; 
we  must  at  least  experience  the  distinction  between 
something  that  exists  and  nothing.  Every  different  act 
of  perception  excites  a  special  act  of  consciousness,  and 
the  mind  refers  it  to  something  existing  outside  of  itself, 
and  considers  it  as  a  qualitative  attribute  of  the  thing 
referred  to.  F'urther,  we  have  the  consciousness  of  the 
special  sense  by  means  of  which  we  appreciate  pheno- 
mena, and  from  this  arises  a  distinction  of  classes,  or, 
better  to  say,  a  certain  analogy  between  all  the  per-. 


ceptions  acquired  by  the  same  sense,  considering  them 
as  a  similar   class   of  qualities.      The   nerve  does  not 
transmit  the  object  of  sensation  ;  it  only  propagates  the 
movement  produced   by  direct   or   indirect    interaction 
between  the  object  and  the  organ  of  sense ;  and  con- 
sequently the  differences  in  the  qualities  (from  which 
attributive  differences  arise)  depend  on  the  arithmetical 
factors  of  the  propagating  movement.     For  this  reason 
attributions  or  qualities  are  subjective  or  ideal  differ- 
ences, not  objective  or  real  ones,  because  the  last  are 
what  we  acquire  by  reflecting  on  the  basis  of  experience, 
referring  the  sensations  to  their  objects  ;  and  by  quanti- 
tative comparison  between  natural  changes  or  physical 
mutations  we  arrive  at  the  knowledge  of  their  arithme- 
tical factors.     Thus,  although  objects  are  perceived  as 
different,  reason  recognizes  some  identity  among  them, 
i.e.  all   objects  or  things  manifested  by  means  of  the 
senses  are  constituted  by  matter  in  movement.     This 
great    induction  is  another  reason  of  the  unity  of  the 
sciences  which,  taken  together,  we  name  Physiology. 

The  v^arious  phenomena  (physical  and  chemical)  with 
which  physiological  sciences  are  occupied  have  an 
intimate  correlation  in  the  system,  one  determining 
another  in  very  different  ways.  If  the  degree  of  mutual 
dependence  in  nature  could  be  exactly  known,  and  a 
perfect  conceptual  analysis  of  the  phenomena  could  be 
determined,  Physiology — the  complete  study  of  nature 
— would  become  a  science  as  deductive  as  Geometry, 
and  on  this  depends  the  preponderance  of  Mathematics 
in  Physiology.  This  science  is  constantly  working 
towards  that  progress,  but  so  slowly  that  in  our  day 
we  cannot  expect  to  see  it  arrive  at  any  practical  degree 
of  perfection  ;  and,  besides,  we  have  the  contrariety  that 


•ii^. 


62 


INTRODUCTION. 


10.  PROVINCE   OF  GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


63 


the  number  of  properties  which  are  daily  discovered  in 
bodies  are  becoming  considerable  at  the  same  time  that 
we  know  nature  better,  and  also  know  more  about  the 
mutual  dependence  among  properties  already  discovered. 

There  is  another  set  of  questions  which  is  beyond 
the  sphere  of  our  natural  knowledge  ;  such  are :  Where 
does  matter  come  from  ?  Why  does  it  move  ?  How  is 
the  connection  between  the  Immaterial  Principle  and 
matter  effected  ?  What  is  the  cause  of  the  uniformity 
and  continuity  of  natural  evolution  ?  For  what  reason 
is  change  originated  in  living  bodies  alone,  and  pro- 
pagated throughout  all  the  world  ? 

These  inquiries  are  not  within  our  limits,  their  dis- 
cussion belongs  to  Immaterial  Philosophy  or  Meta- 
physics, as  in  them  we  ask  for  knowledge  about  the 
Creator,  and  the  connection  of  the  Creator  with  things 
created.  This  miraculous  connection  is  the  incomprehen- 
sible cause  of  the  function  of  organism,  and  therefore  of  all 
the  phenomena  of  cosmos.  Hence  the  more  immediate 
or  direct  effect  of  the  Primordial  Motor  upon  nature  is 
vitality,  which  is  the  synthesis  of  all  the  changes  taking 
place  in  both  kinds  of  living  individuals — in  the 
vegetable  and  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

The  limits  of  physiological  knowledge  are  the 
unknowable  or  infinite  qualities  ;  i.e.  problems  of 
Metaphysics  which  comprehend  the  generation  of  the 
mental  and  of  the  organic  process.  These,  evidently, 
can  never  be  included  in  the  material  circle  of 
Physiology. 

Some  doctrinaires  maintain  that  our  understanding 
cannot  reach  the  knowledge  of  any  more  in  the 
universe  than  of  that  which  refers  to  matter  in  move- 
ment.    This  only   shows   the   narrow  limits    of   their 


ultra-positive  satisfaction,  but  it  does  not  prove  that  the 
universe  is  constituted  only  by  what  is  manifested  to 
our  senses,  and  in  making  such  an  affirmation  they  put 
themselves  in  palpable  contradiction  to  what  is  dis- 
covered by  our  rational  capacity  superior  to  irreflexive 
experience.  Everything  in  the  world  conduces  to  the 
belief  that  a  Supernatural  Power  acts  upon  living  bodies 
as  the  true  or  real  Causing  Force  which  is  the  antecedent 
and  cannot  be  the  resultant  of  their  organization  ;  so 
that  all  the  phenomena  or  manifested  changes  of  nature 
are  secondarily  derived  from  vitality  which  is  the  sole 
proximate  effect  in  the  world  of  the  sole  and  true 
cause.  Hence,  we  must  admit  a  God,  not  only  as  an 
agent  or  principle — Creating  Cause — but  as  an  agent  of 
evolution — Governing  Cause ;  and  in  such  a  supreme 
principle  we  must  recognize  the  divine  finality  which 
must  immediately  direct  the  primordial  effects  of  nature, 
these  are  those  of  vitality  or  living  generation — im- 
mediate cause  of  all  phenomena  in  the  universe. 

We  must  explain  to  ourselves  the  universal  law  of 
conservation  of  energy  by  considering  the  genesic 
potence  one  and  the  same  for  all  bodies,  producing 
different  effects  according  to  the  invariable  conditions  of 
the  universal  whole  in  quality  and  quantity  ;  that  is  to 
say,  such  a  primordial  potepce  is  obedient  to  its  own 
principle,  it  creates  in  relation  with  its  power.  This 
potence,  being  perfect,  cannot  be  conceived  either  as  de- 
fective or  exuberant ;  it  cannot  create  more,  nor  can  there 
ever  be  less  than  what  it  has  created  ;  therefore  the  cause 
(Creator)  and  the  result  (matter)  can  neither  increase 
nor  diminish,  that  is,  there  is  no  new  creation  nor 
annihilation.  Matter  experiences  metamorphoses  or 
evolutions,  but  the  potence  will  be  always  essentially 


64 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  same,  changing  only  the  form  and  combined  consti- 
tution of  its  resultant — actual  world  in  involution. 

Accordingly,  the  first  fundamental  idea  of  our 
Physiological  Theory  is  to  proclaim  scientific  Mono- 
theism in  the  place  of  Materialism,  which,  with  its 
atoms  and  multiple  abstract  forces  is  a  real  idolatry, 
and  finally,  also,  in  the  place  of  the  incredulity  of 
Empiricism,  which  pretends  to  be  scientific  without 
theories. 


1 


PART    I. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COSMOS:  ANALYTICAL 
CONCEPT    OF    MATTER. 

CHAPTER  I. 


GENERAL  CONCEPT  OF  MATTER  :  (a)  ULTIMATE  AB- 
STRACTIONS OR  CONCEPTUAL  ELEMENTS  OF 
MATTER. 


1 


§  II.  Brief  definition  of  the  four  elemental  concepts  of  matter — §  I2.  Con- 
cept of  substance  explained — §  13.  Concept  of  activity  explained — 
§  14.  Concept  oi  space  explained — §  15.  Concept  of  time  explained — 
§  16.  Real  or  concrete  concept  of  movement. 

§  II.  Brief  Definition  of  the  Four  Conceptual 

Elements  of  Matter. 

The  simplest  notions  of  the  understanding,  i.e.  the 
fundamental  or  elemental  concepts — classes  of  ultimate 
abstractions — are  complementary  ideas,  which,  in  order 
to  express  knowledge,  or  even  suppositions,  must  be 
combined  in  themselves,  for  they  are  nothing  in  reality 
if  considered  apart  from  one  another  ;  if  their  significa- 
tion is  complementary  their  validity  is  only  ideal,  as  by 
composition  alone  can  they  enunciate  real  truths. 
Simple  conceptions,  then,  are  distinguished    from    pro- 

F 


I 


66 


/.  MATTER  IN  GENERAL, 


positions  ;  the  last  are  complete  ideas  or  speeches  by 
which  we  express  either  knowledge  or  suppositions  ; 
the  first  are  necessities  for  thought  to  express  the  truths 
from  which  we  are  enabled  to  make  our  reflections,  that 
is,  inductions  or  generalizations,  and  deductions  or 
definite  determinations  which  are  derived  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  general  truth  of  an  induction  to  particular 
cases. 

Natural  science  contains  at  bottom  some  conceptions 
that  are  but  suppositions  concerning  the  connection  of 
material  changes  ;  yet  such  connections,  although  self- 
evident  truths,  are  not  at  all  perceived  by  our  senses. 
Thus,  for  instance,  we  suppose  substance  as  the  supporter 
of  material  changes,  and  we  take  it  for  granted  that 
activity  is  the  interchange  of  substance.  We  also 
assume  things  existing  in  space  as  the  extension  they 
must  occupy  ;  and  time  as  the  duration  of  some  change. 
None  of  these  four  fundamental  conceptions  of  material 
things—"  substance,"  "  activity,"  "  space,"  and  "  time  " — 
are  objects  or  things  of  immediate  perception  ;  they  are, 
of  course,  only  theoretical  or  speculative  ideas,  but  they 
are  indispensable  to  the  so-called  positive  knowledge 
of  nature  or  physiological  propositions,  because  these 
could  not  even  be  conceived  without  the  connection 
among  such  elemental  ideas.  Now,  these  simple  con- 
ceptions, being  necessarily  used  in  every  scientific 
proposition,  must  be  known  in  their  true  signification, 
in  order  to  avoid  in  Physiology  erroneous  suppositions 
of  the  causal  connection  of  natural  phenomena.  Thus, 
for  instance,  when  we  say,  according  to  irreflexive 
observation,  that  light  is  of  many  colours,  we  only 
suppose  colour  as  an  attribute  of  light ;  but  in  studying 
the  real  meaning  of  attributive  conceptions  concerning 


II.   CONCEPTUAL  ELEMENTS. 


67 


^1 


objects  we  learn  that  there  is  no  possible  difference  in 
the   quality   or   essence   of   substance   and   of    natural 
activity,  and  that  all  objective  differences  are  relative, 
that  is,  in  the  connections  of  space  and  time.     So  we 
may  affirm,  after  our  principles  of  investigation  have 
been   rightly  interpreted  by  reflexive  thought,  that  if 
two  lights  differ  in  colour  that  difference  is  only  relative, 
and  consequently,  colour  can  be  essentially  aflirmed  as 
a  relation  and  not  as  an  essential  or  qualitative  con- 
nection— attribution.     This   argument   is   applicable  to 
all  and  every  one  of  the  judgments  concerning  objective 
knowledge  when    subjects    and    predicates    are    simply 
combined  as  substantives  and  their  qualitative  attributes, 
and  in  this  way  we  see  that  thought  constantly  rectifies 
the   ideas    acquired    by   immediate   or    irreflexive   ex- 
perience.    Always  bear  in  mind  that  in  simple  concep- 
tions we  have  only  the  elements  necessary  for  thought 
to  reach  the  fundamental  proposition  of  Physiology,  not 
by  deduction  but  only  by  generalization  or  induction 
of  the  fact  of  inertia,  with   the  sole  guarantee  of  our 
belief  in  the  uniformity  of  nature,  because  anything  to 
the  contrary  is  inconceivable  and  contradictory  to  the 
most  insignificant  affirmation  of  scientific  knowledge. 

We  have  mentioned  two  universal  intuitions  ;  one 
is  substance,  which  is  the  nominal  attributive ;  the  other 
is  activity,  which  is  the  real  attribute.  When  we  reflect 
upon  these  intuitions  we  either  infer  subjective  ideas — 
qualities ;  or  we  calculate  objective  ideas — quantities. 
These  last  are  reduced  to  two  classes  of  terms — space 
and  time,  which,  as  we  shall  see,  are  products  of  mental 
reflection  and  not  mere  intuitions. 

Hence  the  conceptual  elements  or  concepts  of  matter 
are  Substance,  Activity,  Space,  and    Time,    The   word 


68 


I.  MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


substance  is  the  conceptual  term  for  the  ultimate  abstrac- 
tion of  all  the  attributions  that  can  be  a  subject  in  a 
grammatical  or  nominal  sense.  The  word  activity  is  the 
conceptual  term  for  the  ultimate  abstraction  of  all  pre- 
dicate attributions.  The  word  space  is  the  conceptual 
term  for  the  ultimate  abstraction  of  all  the  relations  of 
extension  and  distance.  And  the  word  time  is  the 
conceptual  term  for  the  ultimate  abstraction  of  all  the 
relations  of  duration. 

We  must  clearly  fix  the  meaning  of  these  four  terms, 
as  many  doctrinal  errors  arise  from  some  ontological 
interpretations.  Limiting  their  scientific  signification  to 
their  cosmic  or  physiological  concept,  according  to  which 
they  are  the  ultimate  abstractions  from  extrinsic  or 
cosmic  perceptions  (not  extending  it  to  their  absolute 
comprehension  as  universal  or  metaphysic),  we  will  still 
further  define  the  expressed  terms  in  the  following 
manner : — 

1.  Cosmic  substance  {^dX  is,  in  the  material  or  physio- 
logical sense)  is  the  nominal  notion  common  to  all 
objects,  that  is  to  say,,  to  all  things  perceived  by  the 
senses,  abstraction  being  made  of  activity,  space,  and 

time. 

2.  Cosmic  activity  (that  is,  in  the  material  or  physio- 
logical sense)  is  the  general  notion  of  the  attributive 
predicate  applied  to  all  objects ;  that  is,  movement, 
abstraction  being  made  of  substance,  space,  and  time. 

3.  Cosmic  space  is  the  extension  of  matter,  abstraction 
being  made  of  substance,  activity,  and  time. 

4.  Cosmic  time  is  the  duration  of  a  part,  or  of  the 
whole  of  the  material  system,  abstraction  being  made  of 
substance,  activity  and  space. 

According  to  the  definitions  here  given  we  classify 


I 


\ 


\ 


II.   CONCEPTUAL  ELEMENTS. 


69 


ultimate  abstractions  as  attributive  and  relative.  Sub- 
stance and  Activity  are  attributive  ;  Space  and  Time 
are  relative.  We  call  the  first  two  attributive  abstrac- 
tions, because  they  are  referred  to  matter  itself,  and 
their  conception  can  be  made  separately  in  every  object ; 
when  a  comparison  is  supposed  purely  in  substance  or 
activity,  without  making  reference  to  the  relations  of 
space  and  time  among  the  objects,  it  is  not  quantitative, 
it  is  merely  qualitative  or  attributive.  On  the  contrary. 
Space  and  Time  we  have  denominated  relative  abstrac- 
tions, because  they  are  conceived,  not  in  matter  itself, 
but  in  the  comparison  of  two  states  of  consciousness 
that  are  different  in  the  quantitative  or  mathematical 
reasons  of  things  supposed  identical  in  substance  and 
activity  ;  comparison  being  then  quantitative  in  their 
explicit  factors.  Attributive  differences  are  purely  ideal 
or  metaphysical  ;  nevertheless,  by  an  ellipsis  of  the 
mental  subject  the  intuitive  perceptions  directly  con- 
nected with  the  object  are  referred  to  matter  and  con- 
sidered as  its  own  qualities. 

Quantitative  differences,  on  the  other  hand — those  of 
space  and  time — are  always  real,  natural  or  physio- 
logical, though  (by  an  ellipsis  of  the  material  object)  the 
perceptions  are  directly  connected  among  themselves, 
being  compared  quantitatively,  and  then  referred  to  the 
mind  itself;  and  because  of  this  scholastics  call  them 
"  relations  of  reason." 

It  is  necessary,  we  repeat,  to  determine  precisely  the 
reflexive  signification  of  the  words  which  represent 
ultimate  mental  abstractions,  with  the  view  of  making 
the  ideas  of  language  clear,  in  order  to  avoid  the  error 
of  ontological  realizations,  which  is  the  irreflexive  or 
spontaneous   tendency  of  the   mind  when  we  mention 


70 


/.  MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


I 


12.  SUBSTANCE. 


any  term  whatever,  although  it  represents  an  idea  that 
cannot  be  realized  ;  and  for  this  reason  we  shall  treat  of 
every  one  of  them  separately,  in  different  sections. 

§  12.  Concept  of  Substance  explained. 

This  word  in  Ontology  commonly  represents  an 
abstraction  different  from  that  which  it  represents  when 
its  signification  is  circumscribed  to  Physiology,  because 
in  the  latter  the  supernatural  or  supersensual  concep- 
tions are  set  aside,  as  it  considers  only  those  things  which 
produce  extrinsic  sensations — objects.  In  the  meta- 
physical sense  substance  includes  the  spiritual  and  the 
divine  or  infinite  essence — God  and  mental  subject, 
while  in  Physiology  it  is  generally  though  erroneously 
defined  "  as  a  passive  existence  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  basis  of  all  the  properties  and  qualities  which  things 
manifest."  Such  an  abstract  notion  conduces  to  the 
illusory  belief  that  something  exists  as  "substratum" 
different  from  activity,  and  that  activity  rests  on  the 
substratum  as  if  they  were  separable  things.  But  we 
cannot  represent  in  our  mind  any  objective  thing 
without  manifested  activity,  and  in  nature  we  cannot 
recognize  substance  without  activity.  If  substance  is 
what  remains  apart  from  the  manifestions  inherent  in 
activity,  nothing  can  be  known  as  absolute  substance, 
passive  matter,  or  motionless  mass.  There  is  no 
possibility  of  perception  without  the  recognition  of 
activity  in  that  which  produces  sensation,  and  for  this 
reason  the  existence  of  anything,  after  separating  from 
an  object  all  the  manifestations,  properties,  or  activities 
which  connect  the  outside  world  with  the  mind,  is  a 
fantastic   supposition  of  irreflexive   imagination;    thus 


71 


material  substance  completely  passive  is  no  more  than 
an  elliptical  term  employed  in  the  mental  process  of 
language  in  order  to  express  an  ideal  notion  and  not  a 
thing.  What,  then,  is  substance  as  a  reality  .^  It  is 
nothing  in  cosmic  reality ;  it  is  simply  an  abstraction. 
If  physical  knowledge  must  be  based  in  intelligible 
conceptions,  and  if  in  nature  nothing  exists  (at  least  for 
our  reason)  which  could  be  absolutely  a  passive  sub- 
stance, because  this  could  not  impress  our  mind,  the 
abstract  notion  of  substance  cannot  be  intelligible,  and, 
consequently,  a  true  or  rational  knowledge  about  it  is 
not  possible. 

Substance,  then,  is  only  a  connotative  word,  or  a  term 
of  elliptical  discourse,  but  apparently  there  is  a  reason 
in  favour  of  the  real  existence  of  passive  substance. 
We  shall  see  that  this  is  entirely  false.  It  is  said  by 
many  that,  as  extension  is  not  only  confined  to  material 
substance  but  must  also  comprehend  empty  space,  the 
existence  of  some  passive  substance  is  also  presupposed 
when  it  is  recognized  that  something  exists  in  that 
which  is  occupied.  But  in  making  such  an  illogical 
reflection  they  have  not  taken  into  consideration  that  in 
order  to  recognize  what  is  occupied  we  have  necessarily 
perceived  something  active  in  order  that  matter  should 
manifest  itself,  and  consequently  we  cannot  make  real 
reference  to  any  passive  substance,  nor  to  absolute 
void. 

It  has  also  been  a  matter  of  objection  that  as  the 
idea  of  repose  is  contrary  to  that  of  motion,  by  merely 
supposing  matter  without  movement  we  can  have  a 
concept  of  passive  substance.  To  combat  such  an  idea 
we  need  only  repeat  the  former  argument,  as  no  idea  of 
absolute  repose  is  possible  in  any  place  from  which  our 


72 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL, 


12.  SUBSTANCE. 


73 


mind  receives  the  slightest  impression.  It  may  happen 
that  as  far  as  our  senses  can  reach  we  do  not  perceive 
the  movement  of  some  manifestation  or  phenomenon  ; 
and  then  we  say  in  irreflexive  language  that  there  is 
repose.  But  reason  tells  us  that  the  repose  is  only 
molar  or  in  sensual  appearance,  and  that  there  must  be 
movement ;  as  without  this  there  is  no  sensation  possible, 
because  the  reality  of  material  things,  as  far  as  they  can 
be  known,  consists  in  some  change  or  activity  pro- 
pagated to  our  mind,  and  this  presupposes,  not  repose 
but  movement  whether  visible  or  invisible ;  no  natural 
existence  can  be  known  if  it  is  not  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  senses,  these  furnishing  the  first  ideas  for  the 
activity  of  the  mind  in  our  experiences  from  the  world. 
Notwithstanding  this  truth,  the  notion  of  something 
completely  identical  in  all  matter  has  been  erroneously 
affirmed  as  realized  ;  and  this  illusory  concept  of  abstract 
substance,  which  is  a  fantastic  invention  of  the  philoso- 
phers and  which  was  only  a  hypothetical  possibility 
in  the  thought  of  the  Greek  sages,  many  scientists  of 
to-day  have  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  fundamental 
theory  of  natural  sciences  (Physics,  Chemistry,  etc.)  with 
their  materialistic  idea  of  the  primordial  or  elemental 
atom.  But  the  atom,  even  if  it  were  the  common 
element  of  all  the  material  system,  must,  in  order  to 
manifest  itself,  be  necessarily  active  and  not  passive  ; 
hence,  if  the  atom  represents  any  reality,  this  cannot  be 
an  abstract  substance  only,  but  the  corporeal  element  of 
active  matter.  Besides,  atoms  are  inconceivable  as 
unities  perfectly  homogeneous  in  and  among  themselves, 
that  is  to  say,  the  world  cannot  be  identical  in  every 
one  of  its  parts  and  in  its  totality,  as  we  observe  many 
forms  of  activity  entirely  different  which  produce  in  the 


mind  the  ideas  of  various  attributes  or  properties  in  the 
same  thing.  Some  authors  think  they  can  obviate  this 
difficulty  by  imagining  secondary  atoms  quantitatively 
different  among  themselves  and  also  from  the  primordial ; 
this  they  think  sufficient  to  determine  the  differences 
among  phenomena,  as  phenomenal  differences  are  only 
quantitative,  that  is,  in  their  relations  of  space  and  time. 
In  any  way  either  primordial  or  secondary  atoms  as 
well  as  any  part  of  matter  or  the  whole  world  must 
always  be  considered  active,  and  no  possible  conception 
of  matter  can  be  made  as  passive  or  abstract  substances. 
Accordingly  the  signification  of  the  word  substance 
as  a  passive  means  and  universal  base  equal  in  all 
things  is  beyond  the  reach  of  our  comprehension  ;  then 
it  is  only  an  imaginary  being  of  nominal  existence 
which  cannot  be  explained  and  to  which  we  can  only 
refer  in  tautological  language  by  words  admitted  as  its 
synonyms,  expressing  a  connotative  concept  or  an 
implicit  ultimate  notion  of  the  process  of  mental  abstrac- 
tion. Natural  substance  as  a  reality  can  only  be  com- 
prehended as  matter  in  movement,  the  terms  substance 
and  activity  being  complementary,  as,  we  repeat,  the 
condition  of  being  active  is  essential  to  all  that  is 
manifested  to  the  senses.  Nevertheless,  the  word  sub- 
stance may  be  used  elliptically  in  language  (either 
internal,  reflexive — or  external,  communicative)  in  order 
to  represent  matter  in  general  when  we  cannot,  and 
when  we  do  not  want  to  denote  anything  regarding  its 
activity  and  quantitative  relations.  Then,  not  as  a 
reality,  but  as  a  universal  abstract  noun,  it  represents 
an  imaginary  existence  in  which  nothing  active  can  be 
expressly  determined  ;  it  is  admitted  as  a  convenience, 
and,  it  may  be  said,  even  as  a  necessity  in  the  process 


I 


74 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


13.   ACTIVITY. 


75 


of  mental  reflection,  and  also  in  that  of  language.  We 
acquire  our  ideas  only  by  mental  abstraction,  and  we 
enunciate  them  separately,  from  which  may  arise  the 
false  appearance  that  every  abstraction  is  a  reality. 
This  is  the  mistake  of  realistic  philosophy,  and  the 
same  error  is  implied  in  language  when  we  enunciate 
separately,  as  different  things,  the  universal  predicate 
of  being,  and  the  special  attribute  of  the  predicate,  in 
this  manner  making  an  incomprehensible  distinction 
between  grammatical  subject  without  properties,  or, 
nothitig^  and  the  same  subject  with  properties. 

§  13.  Concept  of  Activity  explained. 

Abstract  activity  means  power  without  substance, 
that  is  to  say,  a  property  or  quality  without  any  one 
possessing  it ;  this  is  as  great  an  impossibility  as  to 
suppose  dancing  without  dancers,  or  war  without  fighters. 
Substance  and  activity  are  complementary,  both  to- 
gether forming  the  notion  of  attributive  existence.  Yet 
with  the  attributes  alone  (substance  and  activity)  our 
understanding  cannot  acquire  the  notion  of  material 
unity,  that  is  to  say,  of  something  equal  in  its  parts  and 
in  the  whole,  like  the  concept  of  atom,  because  such 
unity  as  must  be  supposed  in  movement  is  necessarily 
an  object,  and  we  need  also  to  establish  its  relations  of 
space  and  time^  in  order  to  complete  the  concept  of 
natural  existence,  or  of  the  material  element  which, 
therefore,  is  a  relative  and  not  an  absolute  existence. 
The  nominal  abstraction  we  make  in  the  process  of 
language  when  we  reflect  or  transmit  our  ideas,  induces 
us  to  believe,  or  better,  to  imagine  that  what  produces 
our    impressions   is   something    really   separated    from 


U^^'= 


I 


matter,  or  that  can  exist  without  any  substance — 
abstract  activity ;  but  an  attribute  is  never  manifested, 
nor  can  something  which  is  the  base  of  activity  be  even 
conceived  separately  or  apart  from  an  object. 

Material,  natural,  or  physiological  activity  consists 
only  in  propagated  motion,  in  which  there  is  nothing 
but  a  mutual  ratio  of  energy ;  i.e.  proportional  energy 
or  quantivalence  in  the  interchanges. 

If  physical  activity — movement — comprehends  the 
notion  of  all  that  is  acquired  by  extrinsic  observation 
or  experience,  it  is  not  opposed  to  substance  ;  it  is  all 
that  is  attributed  to  the  notion  of  objective  reality,  and 
to  conceive  it  separately  would  be  the  same  as  to  form 
an  abstract  conception  of  movement.  But  as  every- 
thing, in  order  to  be  known  and  considered  as  a  reality 
within  the  limits  of  natural  phenomena,  must  deter- 
mine some  impression  in  our  mind,  all  objects  must 
necessarily  be  active  or  in  movement.  Hence,  passive 
existence,  we  repeat,  is  in  fact  equal  to  nothing ;  it  is 
only  an  error  of  imagination  still  maintained  in  science, 
or  an  elliptical  expression  to  represent  a  relative  state 
of  repose  in  massive  relations  when  only  one  of  the 
forms  of  activity  is  mentioned — this  is  visible  or  massive 
movement. 

We  must  not  confound  the  words  inertia  and  pas- 
sivity^ the  first  meaning  phenomenal  indifference,  and 
the  second  the  state  of  matter  in  apparent  repose  to 
the  eye  or  in  accordance  with  the  immediate  impression 
of  the  senses,  expressing,  in  fact,  that  we  do  not  see  the 
motion  of  an  object,  at  least,  in  relation  to  the  things 
around  it ;  in  such  a  so-called  state  of  repose  there  is 
necessarily  some  activity,  as  we  shall  see  when  we 
treat  of  invisible  motion.      Even  the  so-called  passive 


76 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


13.   ACTIVITY. 


77 


resistance  is  produced  by  matter  in  movement,  as  some 
activity  is  necessary  in  any  manifestation,  even  though 
it  should  seem  passive  to  our  senses.  The  sole  idea 
suitable  to  the  mind  and  differing  from  nothing  is  active 
existence,  and  in  this  the  limit  or  ultimate  point  of 
scientific  knowledge  is  the  impressions  acquired  from 
the  world,  from  which  our  reason  forms  the  ultimate 
mechanical  notion  ;  this  is,  that  all  material  activity  is 
movement.  Beyond  this  all  terms  are  above  our 
intelligence,  as  we  can  only  define  nature  by  what  is 
manifested  by  means  of  the  senses,  and  in  order  that  a 
scientific  assertion  should  be  true  it  is  necessary  that 
that  which  has  been  experienced  must  pass  under  the 
control  of  reason  as  the  supreme  rank  of  the  mental 
capacities — the  office  of  judgments,  inferences,  and 
calculations. 

When  we  discover  in  nature  that  all  its  activity  is 
reduced  to  effected  movements,  and  that  following  its 
successive  propagations  we  arrive  at  a  mysterious  origin 
of  organic  generation,  we  can  do  no  less  than  admit 
the  influence  of  an  immaterial  generator,  though  any 
character  of  a  Supreme  Being  is  absolutely  imperceptible 
to  us.  The  phenomenal  activity  of  nature  is  engendered 
by  the  sole  power  capable  of  doing  so — by  the  efficient 
or  determining  Primordial  Cause,  i.e.  by  the  Super- 
natural Power,  the  Almighty.  The  synthesis  of  the 
material  changes  effected  in  living  bodies  is  called 
vitality,  whose  first  phenomena  result  from  the  colloca- 
tion or  formation  of  organic  material.  Mechanical 
activity  as  the  common  abstraction  of  all  forms  of 
objective  energy — that  is  to  say,  as  the  manifested 
power  of  the  world,  is  primordially  effected  by  the 
special  function  of  living  bodies  in  the  generating  power 


\ 


of  organism,  which  act  is  beyond  the  reach  of  our 
understanding.  We  can  only  imagine  it  as  a  spiritual 
connection  between  the  Creator  and  living  things,  rele- 
gating the  questions  of  this  problem  to  Theology,  a 
branch  of  Supernatural  Philosophy  or  Metaphysics. 
For  us,  then,  activity  denotes  only  what  is  definitely 
produced  by  propagation  of  movement ;  this  is  the 
natural  or  physical  effect  whether  manifested  or  not — 
and  comprehends  the  phenomenal  and  potential  changes 
of  the  world.  This  activity  (material  energy)  can  only 
be  propagated,  it  can  never  be  created  or  annihilated  ; 
when  there  is  an  appearance  of  cessation,  there  is  only 
a  change  in  which  things  have  passed  to  an  imper- 
ceptible form  of  action — potential  state,  and  when  the 
reverse  occurs,  i.e.  when  there  is  an  apparent  creation, 
it  is  that  a  form  of  imperceptible  action  has  become 
perceptible — phenomenal  state.  In  this  manner  nature 
is  incessantly  changing. 

The  universe  is  a  perfect  system  in  which  nothing 
is  independent,  and  when  there  appears  to  be  indepen- 
dence among  the  changes,  it  is  because  some  inter- 
mediary action  was  imperceptible  on  account  of  the 
mediation  of  an  invisible  object  between  two  visible 
ones  by  means  of  which  these,  though  separate,  propa- 
gate their  actions.  A  continuous  connection  in  matter 
must  always  exist  for  any  propagation,  and  we  repeat 
again,  when  an  action  appears  to  take  place  at  some 
distance,  there  is  certainly  an  indirect  propagation  or 
transmission  by  means  of  some  moving  thing  which  has 
escaped  our  sensual  observation  ;  then  reason  recognizes 
the  necessity  of  some  interactions  by  contact  or  conti- 
guity. Attraction  is  a  myth,  and  not  a  possible  form 
of  activity ;  in  all  cases  where  attraction  appears  to  be, 
we  must  look  for  the  series  of  interactions  which  neces- 


78 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL, 


14.  SPACE. 


79 


sarily  exist  between  bodies  that  seem  to  influence  each 
other  at  a  distance. 

Always  bear  in  mind  that  the  cause  of  vitality  must 
be  excluded  from  the  concept  of  physical  activity,  as 
that  generating  power  produces  an  interaction  which  is 
originated  and  not  propagated.  Such  transcendental 
action  on  the  organism  is  as  different  from  natural 
phenomena  as  creation  itself,  and  thus  living  inter- 
action may  be  considered  possible  as  generated  by  the 
Almighty  alone.  The  generating  action  cannot  be  pro- 
pagated to  organism  from  the  material  world,  in  which 
nothing  is  created  or  annihilated  ;  all  in  nature  is  con- 
tinually changing  by  vitality,  which  causes  matter  to 
pass  in  its  mechanical,  propagating  activity  from  the 
inorganic  world  to  the  organic,  and  the  reverse,  render- 
ing manifest  in  this  manner  the  energy  which  is  con- 
tinually converted  into  latent  by  a  series  of  acts  purely 
mechanical,  as  is  seen  in  the  continuous  loss  of  living 
force  in  machinery. 

The  connection  between  cause  and  effect  in  Physio- 
logy is  an  abstraction  of  activity  itself  when  we  compre- 
hend only  the  antecedents  and  consequents  of  a  change, 
or  of  a  partial  system  of  changes.  Physical  cause  being 
always  a  propagation  of  movement  generated  in  the 
process  of  vitality,  primordial  cause  is  never  found  in 
experimental  facts  ;  those  which  are  recognized  as 
causes  of  some  phenomena  are  only  the  effects  of  other 
changes  of  former  activity  ;  and  in  this  endless  chain 
of  events  the  primordial  effects  in  cosmos  are,  we 
repeat,  the  acts  of  organism,  so  that  vitality  being  a 
synthesis  of  all  the  effects  of  cosmic  mechanism,  permits 
us  to  conceive  the  world,  suppressing  in  it  all  the  phy- 
sical forces  which  are  supposed  to  be  abstract  causes, 


I 


and  which  are  called  attractive  and  repulsive  forces  by 
scientific  writers. 

§  14.  Concept  of  Space  explained. 

True  scientific  distinction  between  one  object  and 
another  does  not  depend  on  attributive  differences  or 
qualitative  abstractions,  but  on  their  various  relations  or 
quantitative  abstractions.  We  have  already  said  that 
there  are  two  elemental  relations — space  and  time.  It 
is  necessary  to  acquire  a  concept  of  them  by  reason 
from  experimental  data  as  their  ultimate  notions  cannot 
be  comprehended  by  words  alone,  nor  by  intuition. 

We  acquire  the  idea  of  space  from  its  two  forms  of 
relation — extension  and  distance.  Consciousness  refers  its 
impressions  sometimes  to  the  mind  and  sometimes  to 
the  world.  Extrinsic  impressions  are  referred  to  any 
object  which  we  recognize  and  admit,  apart  from  the 
mind,  so  determining  the  idea  of  the  relation  of  space 
by  the  appreciated  distance  between  such  an  object 
and  our  mind.  When  such  an  inexplicable  perception 
is  many  times  multiplied  it  is  clearer  to  our  under- 
standing, because  taking  some  determined  space  as  an 
average  we  establish  the  measure  of  space  or  its  exten- 
sion. Besides,  when  we  perceive  two  objects  at  a 
distance  from  each  other,  that  is  to  say,  separated  by  an 
interval  which  is  not  made  manifest  to  us  by  visible 
signs  of  continuous  objects,  we  call  such  an  interval 
also  space  ;  and,  finally,  when  we  compare  all  the  im- 
pressions of  position  of  the  different  parts  of  an  object 
we  identify  more  and  more  clearly  the  idea  of  space 
with  that  of  the  extension  occupied  by  such  an  object. 

In  mature  age  we  immediately  refer  the  experiences 


Lf 


^•« 


80 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL, 


14.   SPACE. 


%l 


of  the  senses  to  things  in  space  and  time,  and  this  is 
what  makes  it  so  difficult  to  assign  to  the  different  senses 
their  participation  in  the  process  of  establishing  the 
mutual  relation  of  exterior  things.  So  that  the  percep- 
tion of  things  and  that  of  the  relations  of  space  are 
formed  at  the  same  time.  Objects  do  not  begin  to  exist 
for  our  mind  until  they  are  individualized  in  space  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  as  soon  as  they  are  distinguished 
in  the  relations  of  space,  these  relations  appear  to  be  as 
objects.  For  the  perception  of  extension  all  the  senses 
must  have  some  power,  but  not  all  the  sensations  are 
equally  efficient  in  presenting  to  the  mind  the  represen- 
tation of  objects  in  space.  Taste,  hearing,  and  smell  can 
scarcely  localize  objects ;  sight  and  touch  (including 
articular  and  muscular  pression)  determine  their  locality 
much  better.  Nevertheless,  in  actual  experience  our 
senses  work  in  co-operation,  and  the  mind  uniformly 
interprets  the  sensations,  there  being  a  fixed  relation 
between  the  given  form  of  sensation  and  its  interpreta- 
tion in  reference  to  space,  because  the  sensations  cannot 
be  interpreted  in  each  one  and  in  the  different  forms  of 
such  relations.  The  exact  connection  between  an  object 
and  the  perception  to  which  it  gives  rise  is  a  fact  which 
cannot  be  demonstrated. 

The  most  important  external  perception  is  that  of 
space,  with  its  two  forms — extension  and  distance.  We 
cannot  consider  extension  as  a  reality  without  losing  our 
intelligence  in  the  labyrinth  of  the  infinite  divisibility  of 
matter,  so  making  a  contradiction  of  the  conception  of 
being.  It  is  referred  to  an  aggregation  expressing  only 
a  certain  order  of  relation  among  the  aggregated  ele- 
ments. The  concept  of  space,  then,  is  not  necessary  as  a 
mental  principle  in  order  that  we  should  form  its  true 


knowledge,  because  no  other  idea  of  space  can  result 
than  that  of  conceptual  relations.  Our  judgment  of 
size  and  distance  also  is  acquired  by  experience,  for  the 
mind  must  learn  by  external  observation  how  to  per- 
ceive the  sensations  which  teach  us  those  relations,  as 
such  perceptions  do  not  result  from  immediate  contact 
with  the  object  but  by  means  of  some  nervous  changes 
produced  by  the  object.  The  action  of  the  nerves, 
then,  is  the  inciting  cause  of  sensation,  and  this  in  turn 
becomes  the  inciting  cause  of  perception. 

Absolute  space — that  is  to  say,  space  as  an  existing 
reality  in  nature  independent  of  matter  in  movement — 
is  a  senseless  phrase  which  implies  the  indeterminable 
sum  of  all  extension  of  occupied  as  well  as  of  empty 
space,  including  in  this  the  infinite  space  which  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  our  senses  and  of  our  understand- 
ing. The  infinite  cannot  be  a  material  thing ;  it  is  a 
word  without  real  representation  ;  it  is  the  negation  of 
the  finite,  and  is  consequently  the  existence  of  nothing 
in  nature.  There  is  no  comprehensive  notion  of  abso- 
lute space  if  this  embraces  not  only  what  is  occupied  by 
the  known  world  but  also  by  the  unknown.  The  infi- 
nite— space  in  absolute — considered  as  a  thing  existing 
before  the  creation,  is  a  metaphysical  problem.  In  such 
a  sense  space  cannot  be  an  object  of  physiological 
reference,  its  discussion  is  inseparable  from  the  concept 
of  the  supersensual,  and  so  does  not  come  within  the 
province  of  Physiology;  nevertheless,  space  is  still  con- 
sidered by  most  ontologists  as  an  infinite  reality.  Reason 
infers  the  idea  of  natural  space  from  experimental  data, 
and  not  simply  by  intuition,  as  space  of  course  implies 
movement  either  visible  or  invisible. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  hypothesis  which  maintains 

G 


82 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


the  absolute  limitation  of  the  world  and  of  space,  is  con- 
trary to  the  most  fundamental  truths  ;  it  is  an  error 
equal  to  the  supposition  that  the  atom  is  the  absolute 
minimum  of  corporeal  extension.  In  order  to  arrive  at 
such  an  erroneous  conclusion  the  pangeometers — main- 
tainers  of  such  a  hypothesis — start  from  an  abstruse 
basis,  such  as  supposing  the  discovery  of  new  dimen- 
sions in  space,  affirming  that  the  true  and  real  space 
has  four  or  more  dimensions,  and  not  three  as  is  gene- 
rally taught ;  that  the  ordinary  space  of  three  dimen- 
sions is  only  one  of  its  possible  forms,  adding  that  in 
real  or  absolute  space  every  line  previously  considered 
by  common  sense  as  straight  could  be  converted  into  a 
closed  curve  if  sufficiently  prolonged,  because,  they  say, 
space  has  some  curvature  which  is  inherent  in  itself, 
thus  being  limited  in  a  spheric,  or  pseudo-spheric  form. 
They  pretend  that  such  assertions  can  be  experimentally 
proved,  presuming  besides  that  numerous  optical,  mag- 
netic and  other  phenomena  can  be  thus  accounted  for  ; 
and  they  also  claim  that  such  a  notion  of  space  is  the 
base  for  the  discovery  of  the  mysteries  of  modern  spirit- 
ism, considering  this  as  produced  by  natural  causes, 
because  otherwise,  they  say,  such  phenomena  would  be 
elevated  to  a  supernatural  rank  !  The  members  of  this 
geometrical  school,  which  they  call  transcendental,  have 
confounded  the  facts  which  they  wish  to  explain  with 
false  ontological  abstractions,  starting  from  the  erro- 
neous concept  that  space  is  a  real  thing  ;  not  only  an 
object  known  to  experience,  but  an  independent  object 
of  direct  sensation,  which,  according  to  them,  can  be 
recognized  by  means  of  instruments  of  physical  and 
astronomical  investigation,  so  empirically  establishing 
the  properties  of  space  as  one  may  those  of  any  object 
or  physical  thing. 


I 


14.   SPACE. 


9-« 


This  conception  of  modern  metageometers  about 
spheroidal  finite  space  is  not  new.  It  has  been  enun- 
ciated in  Aristotle's  "  Cosmology,"  with  the  advantage 
in  favour  of  the  wise  Greek  that  he  did  not  infer  the 
extravagant  conclusions  of  our  contemporaneous  mathe- 
matical philosophers.  No  further  commentaries  are 
necessary  to  see  that  such  a  conception  is  contradictory 
to  fact. 

We  must  not  confound  the  untenable  idea  of  space 
upheld  by  the  sensualists,  with  the  evident  proposition 
that  all  knowledge  of  the  objective  world  is  derived 
from  experienced  data.  Space  is  a  product  of  mental 
abstraction  ;  it  is  a  concept  ;  like  extension,  it  is  simply 
a  relative  character  corresponding  to  all  the  objects  of 
our  sensual  experience,  and  is  reduced  to  nothing  when 
all  the  sensations  are  ignored.  Space  is  neither  a  phy- 
sical object  nor  an  innate  form  of  the  mind  independent 
of  and  forerunning  the  sensations.  Space  has  neither 
proper  form  nor  evident  structure,  but  is  simply  the 
conceptual  possibility  of  all  forms  of  geometrical  con- 
struction which  depend  on  the  concept  formed  by  the 
abstraction  of  all  the  properties  and  figures  which  dis- 
tinguish objects.  The  first  elements  to  form  the  con- 
cept of  space  are  the  perceptions  which  we  derive  from 
the  limited  extension  of  bodies  ;  from  these  arises  the 
indefinite  abstraction  of  space.  When  we  state  that  all 
forms  are  in  space,  that  extension  is  a  necessary  condi- 
tion of  all  things  having  objective  existence,  we  mean 
to  say  that  there  is  nothing  in  physical  reality  which 
can  be  without  extension.  No  act  of  sensation  can 
disassociate  the  extension  of  a  body  from  its  other 
properties  and  manifest  only  extension.  Thus  this, 
which  is  an   irreducible  or   ultimate   act  of  sensation, 


84 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


15.    TIME. 


85 


when,  for  instance,  it  is  acquired  by  the  eye,  is  neces- 
sarily associated  with  the  sensation  of  colour,  which  is 
a  form  of  activity  and  an  ultimate  or  irreducible  quality. 
Confounding  the  concept  of  space  with  sensation,  there 
could  be  no  possible  distinction  between  space  and 
matter ;  if  such  were  the  case,  all  objective  existence 
could  t)e  called  indifferently  either  space  or  matter, 
because  these   two  terms   would  then   have  the  same 

signification. 

Enough  has  been  said  here  to  judge  not  only  the 
sensualists     (materialists),    but    their     adversaries     the 
spiritualists,  because  both  take  the  same  error  as  a  base; 
both  consider  space  as  some  existing  reality,  either  as 
an   object   of  sensation   (sensualists),  or  as   a   form    of 
intuition  (spiritualists).     In  either  case  the  result  is  the 
same,  because  these  doctrinaires   conceive  space  inde- 
pendent of  objects.     But,  as  we  have  already  said,  the 
mind  alone  cannot  imagine,  nor  obtain  the  sensation  of 
pure  space  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  idea  of  space  is  always 
relative,  for  it  is  associated  in  our  consciousness  with 
something  determined  by  sensation.     In  opposition  to 
this   true   view,  idealism   has   wrongly   interpreted   the 
concept  of  space  in  two  ways,  one  school  having  for  its 
leader  Kant,  and  the  other  being  led  by   Fichte  and 
Schopenhauer.     According  to  Kant,  space  is  a  form  of 
pure  subjective  intuition  (intrinsic  intuition)  existing  in 
the  mind  with  independence  and  anterior  to  all    acts 
of  sensation.     According  to  Fichte,  space  is  also  purely 
subjective  ;  he  adds  that  space,  being  entirely  in    the 
mind,  cannot  be  the  basis  for  anything  outside  the  mind 
itself,'  and  he  concludes  that  the  mind  is  the  only  ground 
where  objects  can  exist ! 

All   these   erroneous  conclusions,  we   repeat   again, 


i 


depend  on  the  false  ontological  supposition  that  every 
concrete  thing  and  every  abstract  entity  is  considered 
as  really  existing  with  independence  ;  and  in  order  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  error  of  such  an  absurd  hypothesis, 
we  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  in  all  initial  acts  of 
the  understanding  what  is  called  phenomena  or  objective 
manifestations,  and  qualities  or  subjective  distinctions, 
result,  both  at  the  same  time,  from  the  mutual  action 
(interaction)  between  object  and  mind,  the  names  of 
objects  being  nothing  else  than  terms  of  attributive  and 
relative  abstractions. 

§  15.  Concept  of  Time  explained. 

What  has  been  said  about  space  is  applicable  to 
time  by  simply  making  a  substitution  of  terms.  Thus 
the  word  duration  as  a  measure  of  time  is  the  correlative 
of  extejision  as  the  measure  of  space. 

In  order  to  be  enabled  to  recognize  an  objective 
impression,  a  change  must  occur  in  sensation,  and  no 
change  can  be  conceived  without  succession  ;  an  un- 
definable  relation  is  then  admitted  by  the  mind  which 
establishes  a  difference  of  time  between  an  impression 
previously  recognized  and  what  occurs  afterwards. 

Time  in  absolute  is  only  a  nominal  phrase,  without 
a  real  signification  ;  it  is  in  the  same  case  as  the 
imaginary  subjects  already  treated  of — Absolute  Sub- 
stance, Absolute  Activity,  and  Absolute  Space  or  the 
Infinite.  Common  time  is  the  standard  of  comparison 
used  to  determine  the  duration  of  change  with  more  or 
less  exactitude.  Time,  supposed  to  be  continuous,  is 
measured  by  the  return  of  objects  in  space  to  certain 
relative  positions,  but  such  a  return  depends  on  physical 


86 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


i6.   MOVEMENT. 


87 


conditions  which  are  variable,  and  consequently  the 
results  are  variable  also.  This  happens  with  our  modern 
chronometers,  although  not  to  such  an  extent  as  it  did 
with  the  hour-glass  of  the  ancients.  No  instrument  is 
absolutely  free  from  friction,  or  from  variation  in  inten- 
sity of  gravity  according  to  the  latitude,  or  from  changes 
of  extension  which  are  effected  by  variations  of  tempe- 
rature ;  even  the  celestial  clocks,  like  the  sun  and  stars, 
suffer  changes  that  make  absolute  equality  indetermin- 
able in  the  measures  of  time,  as  there  are  indeed  secular 
irregularities  like  some  disturbances  of  celestial  gravita- 
tion. Consequently  absolute  constancy  of  succession  in 
time  is  simply  a  conception  of  the  mind  as  illusory  as 
the  positions  in  space  which  serve  as  fixed  points  for 
determining  the  quantity  of  movement.  The  concept 
of  the  abstract  idea,  time,  is  of  little  importance  in 
physiological  science,  and  a  criticism  similar  to  that 
made  of  space  is  applicable  to  it ;  so  that  we  have 
sufficient  with  what  has  been  said. 

§  16.  Real  or  Concrete  Concept  of  Movement. 

All  that  can  be  perceived  by  our  senses,  which  is  the 
object  of  physiological  science  in  general  (Physiology, 
properly  so-called)  is  necessarily  active  substance — 
moving  matter — in  which  relations  of  Space  and  Time 
are  defined,  and  consequently  the  terms  Substance, 
Activity,  Space,  and  Time  are  abstractions  of  language 
from  moving  objects  or  concrete  motion ;  when  we 
mention  one  of  these  terms  we  make  the  ellipsis  of  the 
others,  which  are  then  unnecessary  or  unknown  in  a 
determined  manner.  When  we  have  tried  to  define 
every  one  of  them  as  a  particular  existence  we  have  had 


i 


no  possibility  of  doing  so  except  by  verbal  propositions, 
that  is,  by  means  of  terms  analogous  to  themselves. 

The  supreme  or  ultimate  proposition  of  Physical 
Science  must  be  the  recognition  of  universal  organism, 
admitting  that  the  primordial  movement  of  phenomenal 
changes  is  effected  by  the  act  of  vital  generation,  whose 
agent  is  potential  and  not  phenomenal,  and  that  those 
changes  observed  as  directly  producing  the  experimental 
or  ordinary  idea  of  movement  are  always  secondary  ; 
and  as  a  corollary  of  this  proposition  we  affirm  that 
mechanism — object  of  Universal  Physiology — is  the  con- 
cept of  motion  formed  by  abstraction,  but  comprehend- 
ing in  it  the  derived  changes  of  the  system.  Thus  all 
which  is  physical,  objective  or  material,  is  only  matter  in 
movement.  And  what  is  movement?  It  is  an  ultimate 
or  inexplicable  fact  which  can  only  be  defined  by  words 
synonymous  with  itself.  The  word  movement  has  two 
significations ;  in  the  abstract  sense,  as  a  concept  sepa- 
rate from  matter,  nothing  exists  which  is  really  move- 
ment, this  being  only  the  possible  reason  of  all  physical 
activity ;  and  in  the  concrete  sense  movement  is  an  ellip- 
tical term  of  language  in  which  the  existence  of  matter 
is  implicit.  In  this  last  sense  it  has  been  the  subject  of 
analysis  in  this  chapter,  because  movement  is  the  com- 
plex concept  of  the  four  ultimate  abstractions  of  all 
natural  being  or  object,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  four 
conceptual  elements  which  result  from  the  mental 
analysis  of  all  objective  things:  Substance,  Activity, 
Space,  and  Time ;  circumscribing  the  signification  of 
these  terms  to  the  concepts  of  natural  beings  or  those 
which  are  manifested  to  the  senses.  These  four  words 
are  the  ultimate  terms  of  scientific  language,  and  are 
not  only  undefinable,  but  also  inconceivable  as  realities. 


88 


/.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL. 


In  language  they  represent  the  grammatical  subjects 
and  universal  predicates  of  objects.  Hence,  all  physical 
changes  in  general,  and  each  one  in  particular,  being 
kinematic,  that  is,  resulting  from  movement,  necessarily 
presuppose  Substance,  Activity,  Space,  and  Time  ;  if 
these  four  conceptions  are  not  expressed  they  must  be 
tacitly  recognized,  and  in  this  sense  it  can  be  said  that 
all  real  existing  objects  suppose  the  mental  synthesis 
of  the  four  universal  abstractions — two  attributive, 
Substance  and  Activity,  and  two  relative.  Space  and 
Time ;  and  such  a  synthetic  notion  is  movement  in 
reality. 


17.   PROPERTIES  OF  MATTER. 


89 


CHAPTER  n. 

GENERAL  CONCEPT  OF  MATTER  ic07ltimied)  :  (b)  RELA- 
TIVE SIGNIFICATION  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  PHRASES  :  — 

§  17.  Properties  of  matter— §  18.  Essence  of  matter— §  19.  Matter  and 
force— §  20.  Mass  and  movement— §  21.  Universal  attraction— §  22. 
Physiological  or  physical  change— §  23.  Inertia  of  matter— §  24. 
Conservation  of  energy. 

§  17.  Properties  of  Matter. 

The  concept  of  matter,  as  we  have  just  seen,  is  very 
complex,  containing  in  its  signification  the  four  con- 
ceptual elements:  the  two  attributive,  substance  and 
activity ;  and  the  two  relative,  space  and  time. 

Ordinarily  speaking,  matter  expressly  means  only 
the  substance  of  objects  ;  this  is  the  irreflexive  signi- 
fication of  the  word  matter ;  but  in  the  scientific  sense 
this  word  connotes  the  notion  of  the  other  three  elemen- 
tal abstractions  which  are  the  complements  of  substance  : 
activity,  space,  and  time.  These  words,  physiologically 
employed,  express,  as  we  have  already  said,  abstract 
concepts,  limited  to  the  objects  or  material  things,  which 
are  concrete  realities. 

All  the  so-called  properties  of  matter  are,  like  the 
conceptual  elements,  but  abstract  concepts,  nevertheless 
extension  and  impenetrability  are  considered  as  universal 


90 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


17.   PROPERTIES  OF  MATTER. 


91 


properties  of  matter  by  all  physicists,  excepting  those 
who  maintain  pure  dynamism  by  denying  the  real 
extension  of  matter  and  admitting  only  elemental 
activities  without  extension,  related  in  the  infinite  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  produce  sensations  with  the  appear- 
ance of  a  world  of  corpuscular  things  not  continuous  in 
space.  With  such  a  fantastic  idea  some  physicists, 
among  them  great  mathematicians,  presume  to  solve  the 
difficulties  of  some  problems  of  matter  such  as  its  unity, 
divisibility,  and  indestructibility.  This  hypothesis  of 
pure  dynatnism  explains  penetrability  of  bodies  by  the 
false  statement  that  matter  is  absolutely  lacking  in 
extension,  and  that  it  is  constituted  by  mathematical 
points  endowed  with  the  ideal  elements  they  call  forces, 
which  are  considered  to  be  infinitely  small  (and  this 
amounts  to  nothing)  in  comparison  with  the  distances 
which  separate  them  from  one  another.  Dynamists, 
then,  consider  the  total  extension  of  objects  as  an  effort 
of  the  predominating  repulsive  forces  of  such  points. 
It  is  clear  that  this  inconceivable  hypothesis  springs 
from  a  mathematical  abstraction. 

We  must  recognize  extension  as  a  general  predicate 
of  matter  which  is  employed  in  all  objects,  but  it  does 
not  establish  absolute  distinction  or  attribution,  it  is 
only  a  distinction  of  relation.  It  has  already  been 
effectually  demonstrated  that  extension  is  the  measure 
of  the  relations  of  space,  that  is,  a  quantitative  deter- 
mination of  any  object  or  group  of  objects.  Two  objects 
could  not  occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time  if 
they  were  extended  in  absolute,  and  this  is  the  meaning 
of  the  word  impenetrability.  But  practically  we  see  that 
all  bodies  are  penetrable,  a  fact  which  is  contradictory 
to  the  idea  of  considering  objects  endowed  with  abso- 


\ 


'-4 


lute  extension.  This  contradiction  is  obviated  by  giving 
to  the  terms  "extension"  and  "impenetrability"  their 
true  relative  signification,  as  practically  we  never  reach 
the  limits  of  the  minimum  extension  of  bodies,  nor  of 
course  the  limits  of  their  impenetrability  ;  a  complete 
or  absolute  case  of  impenetrability  never  comes  under 
our  observation. 

But  most  physicists  pretend  to  know  by  direct  sensual 
experience  that  bodies  are  impenetrable,  and  they  say 
they  arrive  at  this  conclusion  without  even  the  necessity 
of  appealing  to  reason.  They  have  formed  such  an 
illusion  from  the  crudest  appearances  of  massive  mecha- 
nics, considering  space  as  an  objective  entity  in  which 
every  object  should  occupy  in  its  minimum  extension  a 
fixed  or  determined  part  into  which  no  other  body  could 
penetrate,  for  that  space  they  say  is  absolutely  full. 
But  the  determination  of  minimum  or  absolute  exten- 
sion is  an  impossibility,  it  is  an  eternal  "  X  "  (unknown 
quantity)  practically  indeterminable,  and  parallel  with 
the  fixation  of  the  absolute  zero  in  the  thermometric 
scale,  which  can  be  only  the  reduction  to  nothing. 

We  have  already  demonstrated  that  the  reality  of 
space  is  an  ontological  enigma,  so  it  only  remains  for  us 
now  to  prove  that  experience  has  never  given  us  the 
knowledge  of  the  minimum  limit  of  the  extension  of  a 
body.  No  one  doubts  that  when  we  submit  bodies, 
especially  liquids,  to  compression  by  means  of  the  most 
powerful  machinery,  we  find  a  limit  of  compressibility 
to  the  strongest  forces  that  can  thus  be  employed  in 
molar  or  massive  mechanics,  but  we  must  not  infer  from 
this  that  we  have  reached  the  minimum  extension  of 
bodies  or  the  limit  of  their  impenetrability,  because  the 
same  space  can  be  occupied   by  another   body,  as  is 


-'*  *'S?'- 


92 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


17.   PROPERTIES  OF  MATTER. 


93 


observed  from  the  reduction  of  volume  when  many 
fluids  are  mixed,  and  from  the  great  contraction  of 
volume  which  frequently  occurs  in  the  combination  of 
liquids,  though  they  seem  incompressible  by  the  force 
of  the  most  powerful  presses.  It  is  also  well  known 
that  if  two  or  more  gases  are  enclosed  in  the  same 
cavity  (even  without  determining  chemical  metamor- 
phoses) each  gas  is  distributed  in  that  space  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  it  were  alone. 

All  bodies  are  really  penetrable,  and  the  continuity 
of  their  contents  is  only  apparent.  Impenetrability  as 
well  as  extension  is  a  relative  property — a  relation  of 
space — which  depends  on  the  mutual  action  of  bodies, 
and  not  an  absolute  inherence  in  matter.  It  is  evident 
that  a  determined  particle  of  matter  must  occupy  some 
minimum  space,  but  this  fact  cannot  be  acquired  by  our 
knowledge  of  objective  realities,  as  these  are  constituted 
by  corpuscles  separated  by  imponderable  ether  always 
in  movement  (heat),  and  consequently  the  space  which 
is  apparently  occupied  by  bodies  cannot  be  absolutely 
filled  with  matter,  because  otherwise  such  movement 
could  not  be  possible. 

The  false  presupposition  that  objects  are  in  reality 
in  the  same  correlation  as  they  appear  to  human  under- 
standing has  also  conduced  to  the  error  of  considering 
impenetrability  of  matter  as  an  absolute  property  known 
by  experience  ;  thus,  because  solids  are  perceived  before 
fluids,  we  are  inclined  to  the  spontaneous  or  irreflexive 
preference  of  supposing  that  matter  is  primordially 
endowed  with  solidity,  or  impenetrable  rigidity,  and 
that  softness,  flexibility  and  fluidity  result  from  complex 
modes  of  aggregation.  But,  as  we  have  already  said, 
the    ultimate    corpuscular    elements  of  bodies — atoms. 


I 


which  are  supposed  to  constitute  ponderable  matter — 
must  never  be  in  perfect  continuity  or  absolute  contact 
in  all  parts,  because  otherwise  they  would  not  permit 
any  form  of  internal  movement,  which  consists  in  oscil- 
lations of  imponderable  matter  (progene),  the  degree  of 
temperature  and  the  state  of  bodies  being  thus  deter- 
mined. The  affirmation  of  impenetrability  is  merely 
gratuitous  in  the  sense  of  observation,  it  is  solely  a 
condition  which  presupposes  reasoning,  because  to  deny 
it  would  be  a  contradiction  of  the  affirmation  of  objec- 
tive existence.  But  what  are  in  reality  the  practical 
limits  of  penetrability  ?  We  do  not  know  them,  we 
repeat,  any  more  than  we  know  the  absolute  zero  or 
absolute  lack  of  heat.  Accordingly  extension  and  pene- 
trability (instead  of  impenetrability)  are  sensual  data  of 
quantitative  relation  which  vary,  not  only  in  the  quan- 
tity of  matter,  but  also  in  the  movement  of  the  mechanic 
action,  internal,  as  well  as  external.  The  different  states 
of  bodies  result  from  the  relation  of  internal  and  external 
actions,  which  arise  from  the  interaction  of  objects  with 
one  another.  Solidity  is  not  an  attribute  of  objects  ;  it 
is  only  the  concept  of  relative  abstraction  ;  in  reality  we 
have  never  seen  an  absolutely  solid  body  ;  the  greatest 
or  least  resistance  observed  in  different  bodies  is  a  rela- 
tive condition  especially  contrary  to  thermic  activity. 
All  material  elements  have  not  the  relative  properties 
of  ponderable  masses,  though  these  properties  are  deter- 
mined by  the  effect  of  the  distribution  and  interaction 
of  the  parts  ;  the  relation  among  the  material  elements 
is  purely  dynamic. 

We  shall  see  that  the  solidity  of  a  body  does  not 
depend  on  the  integral  solidity  of  its  ultimate  elements, 
but  results  from  want  of  equilibrium  in  favour  of  ex- 


*.  ^siei■6aua■iaaMfjffl^|f^^rtMii 


94 


JI.   MATTER   IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


i8.   ESSENCE  OF  MA  TTER. 


95 


ternal  pressure  upon  the  constituted  elements  of  a  solid 
body  ;  so  that  the  resistance  of  a  body  to  yield  in  its 
extension,  or  to  break,  depends,  not  on  the  absolute 
continuity  among  its  elements,  but  on  the  control  of  heat 
expansion  by  external  pressure,  principally  that  of 
imponderable  ether  (progene)  which  compresses  all 
bodies.  The  idea  of  absolute  solidity  of  matter,  from 
which  the  idea  of  absolute  impenetrability  arises,  is  an 
unreasoned  perception,  a  superficial  and  imperfect  datum 
of  the  most  culminant  sensations  acquired  during  our 
childhood,  and  from  our  most  ordinary  experiences. 
Solidity  is  the  most  complicated  structure  of  inorganic 
matter  ;  in  truth,  organized  matter  is  the  more  complex, 
but  this  is  because  it  comprehends  in  the  same  body 
all  the  dififerent  states  forming  a  whole.  We  must  affirm, 
in  conclusion,  then,  that  there  are  no  absolute  properties 
of  matter,  that  even  extension  and  impenetrability  are 
relative. 

§  1 8.  Essence  of  Matter. 

There  are,  in  reality,  no  essential  differences  among 
objects.  On  what,  then,  depends  those  so-called  essential 
differences  of  matter?  What  is  that  which  is  called 
essence  or  proper  nature  of  every  object } 

A  doubt  instantly  arises  in  our  mind  as  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  knowing  the  true  or  qualitative  essence  of 
a  thing,  because  we  lack  the  assistance  of  the  proof  of 
the  senses  which  gives  no  more  experimental  data  than 
those  which  oblige  us  to  recognize  attributive  or  quali- 
tative identity  instead  of  differences  of  substance  and 
activity  among  material  or  objective  things. 

The  essence  of  matter  cannot  be  found  by  what  are 


\ 


called  its  qualities,  as  these  do  not  reveal  how  matter 
is,  but  only  how  it  affects  our  mind  ;  thus  the  same 
object  can  produce  opposite  sensations  by  producing 
contrary  ideas  of  quality,  and  if  the  qualities  of  that 
object,  whose  essence  we  would  like  to  express,  change 
or  vary,  the  result  would  be  the  contradiction  that  the 
same  thing  is  not  the  same.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
word  essence  were  employed  to  signify  something  per- 
sistent in  the  object  through  all  observed  changes,  it 
would  represent  a  supersensual  problem  whose  reso- 
lution would  be  in  the  dominion  of  pure  reason  or  Meta- 
physics. 

Accordingly,  if  the  terms  "essence"  or  "qualitative 
nature"  were  admitted  in  Physiology  to  express  what 
is  characteristic  in  every  object,  they  would  not  express 
any  quality,  but  only  commensurable  quantities  or 
material  relations  of  space  and  time,  which  vary  with 
the  active  change  that  occurs  in  all  things.  Hence  the 
qualitative  nature  or  physical  essence  of  things  may  be 
spoken  of  only  as  a  pure  mental  formula,  expressing  the 
most  persistent  mutual  action  of  objects  in  their  quan- 
titative variations,  which,  of  course,  are  not  absolute  but 
relative.  Furthermore,  the  determination  of  the  proper 
essence  of  objects  should  not  consist  in  fixing  definite 
velocities  and  directions  of  movements  at  a  given  time, 
but  in  fixing  the  general  velocity  and  constant  direc- 
tion of  objects  at  all  times,  which  is  an  impossibility  on 
account  of  the  condition  of  variability  in  the  universe. 

Physicists  commonly  speak  also  of  the  essence  of 
substance  as  something  different  from  the  phenomenal 
and  potential  activity  of  nature.  But  it  is  a  fallacy  of 
language  to  say  that  phenomena  have  their  proper 
essence  in  absolute  when  only  the  differential  characters 


96 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


1 8.   ESSENCE   OF  MATTER. 


97 


which  result  from  the  changes  or  modes  of  movement 
are  observable,  and  these  are  always  quantitative  differ- 
ences, and  therefore  differences  of  space  and  time. 

Neither  is  an  essential  or  absolute  distinction  in 
matter  possible  between  the  potential  and  the  actual, 
or,  in  other  words,  between  the  latent  and  the  phe- 
nomenal, because  the  actual  differs  from  the  potential 
only  in  the  quantitative  conditions  of  the  propagation 
of  movement ;  in  the  first  place  its  influence  can  be 
felt  in  sensation,  while  in  the  second  there  is  not 
sufficient  intensity  in  the  propagation  to  produce  a 
mental  impression  through  the  senses.  For  example, 
if  a  movement  of  four  vibrations  in  a  second  should  be 
propagated  to  our  ears,  it  is  uDt  sufficient  to  produce 
sonorous  vibrations,  nor  will  any  vibratory  movement 
be  felt  if  it  exceeds  forty  thousand  vibrations  in  a 
second.  In  such  cases  there  is  an  energy  which  is  not 
manifested  to  our  senses  because  of  defect  or  of  excess 
of  celerity,  and  which  is  called  potential  energy.  This 
nevertheless  may  be  usefully  employed  by  converting  it 
into  phenomenal  movement.  Therefore  the  distinction 
which  we  try  to  establish  between  the  words  potential 
or  latent,  and  actual  or  phenomenal,  is  purely  personal 
or  subjective.  That  which  is  called  potential,  virtual, 
disposable,  or  latent,  is  what  is  not  manifested  to  our 
senses  because  the  factors  of  movement  are  not  in  the 
relation  necessary  to  impress  the  organs  of  sense,  and 
propagate  it  to  the  brain  in  order  to  determine  the  sen- 
sations. The  potential  state  of  matter  is  as  well  defined 
by  reason  as  can  be  the  forms  which  are  seen  and 
touched  ;  the  difference  of  phenomenal  states  are  deter- 
mined only  by  sensual  effects,  and  consequently  they 
are  defined  only  in  their  appearance,  not  in  their  evi- 


dence, which  last  can  be  recognized  and  judged  by  the 
supreme  faculty  of  reason  alone.  In  action  all  that  is 
directly  appreciable  by  the  senses  is  what  is  qualified 
as  actual  or  phenomenal,  but  in  the  exact  sense  all  that 
exists  is  actual  ;  nothing  can  be  a  potential  thing  in 
absolute,  and  consequently  such  expressions  are  in 
reality  figures  of  speech  always  implying  a  dynamic 
state  of  the  objects  and  not  any  essential  difference. 
Nevertheless,  we  admit  the  term  potential,  in  a  conven- 
tional relative  sense,  to  signify  that  which  is  not  directly 
manifested  by  the  senses,  and  which  we  recognize  by 
reason  alone,  when,  with  the  appearance  of  spontaneity, 
phenomenal  determinations  are  produced  by  energies 
not  directly  perceptible  ;  then  the  occult  proximate 
causes  are  called  potential. 

If  within   the   limits  of  our   intellectual  efforts  the 
essence  or  proper  nature  of  an  object  is  known  only  by 
the  quantitative  relations  of  its  activity  or  movement, 
we  must  investigate  what  is  the  essence  of  matter  by 
observing  how  the  objects  of  cosmos  act.     Our  intelli- 
gence cannot  go  beyond  the  calculations  on  extrinsic 
perceptions,  acquiring  from  these  alone  all  the  data  for 
the  knowledge  of   matter.     We    must  not    forget  that 
our  understanding  is  limited,  and  that    man,  being   a 
creature,    cannot    control    a   supernatural     intellectual 
domain.     In  other  words,  if  the  essence  of  the  proper 
nature  of  objects  makes  reference  to  human   capacity 
it  must  not  be  in  matter  itself,  as  this  cannot  have  an 
essence   as   different    entity ;  matter   is   the   whole  (in 
objective  cosmos),  and  its  essence  is  in  the  ratio  of  its 
definite  modes  of  quantity,  and  from  the  form  and  con- 
tinuation of  activity  we  derive  the  law  of  its  action.     By 
this  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  a  law  governs  cosmos, 

11 


jsiaiBr 


98 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED), 


19.    FORCE. 


99 


but  that  cosmos  acts  in  accordance  with  a  law  which 
is  but  a  quantitative  relation.  All  cosmic  law,  then,  is 
also  relative  and  not  essential ;  the  essential  or  pri- 
mordial law  by  which  an  object  has  been  created  and 
is  governed  in  its  activity,  is  and  will  be  for  ever  as 
enigmatic  for  the  most  piercing  intellect  as  for  the 
savage.  Thus,  we  do  not  tire  of  repeating  what  we 
have  said  many  times  before,  that  in  the  things  defined 
in  nature  (for  human  understanding  at  least)  as  the 
sole  physical  realities,  the  distinction  between  object 
and  its  law,  like  that  between  substance  and  activity, 
matter  and  force,  or  mass  and  movement,  is  nothing 
but  a  division  in  our  mental  speculation.  Hence,  we 
affirm  that  the  essence  or  qualitative  nature  of  things  is 
only  an  abstraction  or  mental  separation  of  that,  which, 
being  more  constant  among  the  activities  of  a  thing, 
characterizes  or  distinguishes  it  from  the  others  so  as 
to  aid  us  in  our  scientific  purposes,  but  it  is  a  relative 
distinction,  arbitrary  or  conventional,  though  useful. 

§  19.  Matter  and  Force. 

All  objects  must  be  considered  as  a  field  of  finite 
though  indeterminable  extension  always  in  activity, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  manifested  ;  otherwise  we 
could  say  that  matter  does  not  exist  as  well  as  that  it 
does  exist,  and  material  nature  would  be  reduced  to  a 
pure  ideal  thing,  which,  sensually  or  objectively  con- 
sidered, is  equal  to  nothing. 

Matter  cannot  be  the  passive  object  of  force,  as  is 
said  by  atomists  and  materialists,  for  a  thing  without 
activity  cannot  be  an  object  for  the  mind  ;  thus  physi- 
cists usually  say  that  matter  is  a  vehicle  of  force,  but 


a  thing  cannot  be  a  vehicle  without  power  or  energy. 
Strictly  speaking  there  is  no  absolute  repose,  no  absolute 
inaction  in  nature  ;  an  object,  in  order  to  be  perceived, 
must  exist  with  some  corresponding  action  to  impress 
the  senses,  either  propagated  directly  or  by  means  of 
something  which  propagates  the  activity  between  the 
object  and  the  senses. 

Hence  the  distinction  in  nature  between  matter  and 
force  is  only  verbal,  it  is  merely  a  difference  of  words  to 
express  the  same  real  thing  in  a  definite  sense.  The 
terms  "  matter  "  and  "  force  "  do  not  represent  separate 
existences  in  the  reality  of  cosmos  ;  to  carry  into  the 
world  of  objective  things  such  a  distinction  is  to  labour 
under  a  delusion  of  language.  In  reality,  when  we 
speak  of  an  object,  we  adopt  the  same  form  as  in  the 
judgment,  putting  the  name  of  the  thing  as  the  gram- 
matical subject  separate  or  apart  from  its  attributes  or 
relations  which  are  the  predicate  ;  in  this  manner 
language  makes  a  fictitious  division  between  the  thing 
itself  and  its  predicate,  but  an  objective  substance  does 
not  exist  separate  from  its  predicate,  although  such  a 
distinction  is  made  in  thought  and  language  ;  thus  we 
speak,  though  improperly,  of  matter  as  containing  forces, 
and  so  imagine  that  there  are  true  entities  separate  from 
matter ;  in  this  manner  even  the  sagest  minds  have 
fallen  into  the  erroneous  idea  of  admittingr  and  recoe- 
nizing  in  nature  many  abstract  forces,  as  attraction, 
affinity,  caloric,  luminous  agent,  etc.,  so  representing 
matter  with  several  forces,  some  of  them  fatal  (inevitable 
in  their  effects),  and  others  elective  (choosing  their 
efifects).  Thus,  for  instance,  attraction  is  considered  by 
astronomers  as  fatal  according  to  the  law  of  distances, 
while  chemists  consider   affinity,  and    biologists   irrita- 


lOO 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


bility,  as  elective.  Besides,  they  say  that  every  force  is 
independent.  This  cannot  be  so  ;  the  notion  of  force 
is  in  every  case  an  abstraction.  Forces  are  separate  only 
in  the  mind  ;  they  are  mental  abstractions  by  which  we 
determine  the  different  classes  of  acts  which  are  dis- 
covered in  nature :  forces  are  simply  the  measure  of 
movement 

Every  act  of  matter  must  be  directly  attributed  as 
a  proximate  effect  to  matter  itself,  and  not  to  illusory 
abstract  forces  residing  in  object ;  any  other  conception 
is  contradictory  to  fact.  Passive  matter  is  never  dis- 
covered by  rational  experience,  for  we  know  an  object 
exists  only  because  it  acts  through  our  senses.  Reflec- 
tion conducts  us  beyond  the  apparent  repose  of  matter, 
and  then,  with  the  light  of  reason,  we  see  the  real  world 
which  always  manifests  power  in  incessant  action. 
Therefore,  when  a  thing  that  was  in  mutual  action  with 
others  appears  after  a  change  operated  in  its  relations, 
as  passive  matter  or  matter  in  repose,  this  will  be  only 
a  relative  state  which  must  never  be  confounded  with 
absolute  repose  or  passivity.  If  we  affirm  the  inde- 
structibility of  matter,  it  is  because  it  never  becomes 
inactive  in  absolute,  otherwise  for  us  it  would  be 
annihilated.  Nevertheless,  the  ancients,  almost  without 
exception,  believed  that  the  natural  state  of  things  was 
repose,  that  objects  could  come  into  motion  only  as  the 
effect  of  some  exterior  agent,  and  always  resume  their 
tendency  to  repose  as  soon  as  the  action  of  the  agent 
was  removed  ;  movement  being  considered  by  them  a 
violent  and  accidental  state  of  objects.  This  would  be 
true  if  there  were  no  other  movement  than  the  pheno- 
menal or  manifested,  and,  consequently,  the  cause  of  such 
an  erroneous  belief  is  sensual  or  irreflexive  experience 


19.  FORCE. 


10 1 


which  constantly  furnishes  us  with  apparent  proofs  of 
the  difficulty  which  exists  in  initiating  a  movement  in 
ponderable  matter  and  also  with  the  apparent  tendency 
to  the  cessation  of  molar  movement. 

When  we  reduce  movement  to  the  field  of  sensual 
irreflexion,  without  thinking  of  that  which  must  also 
exist  in  the  actions  in  which  there  is  no  visible  change 
in  the  place  of  things,  the  word  movement  then  signifies 
only  molar  movement  like  that  of  massive  mechanics. 
The  irreflexive  concept  of  matter  and  force  as  different 
things  is  taken  also  when  we  make  an  effort  to  move 
ourselves  and  after  some  time  are  obliged  to  rest  ;  then, 
extending  the  meaning  of  the  word  movement,  this 
personal  condition  is  translated  to  all  things,  and  finally, 
the  dissipation  of  physical  energy  observed  in  all 
mechanical  changes  inclines  us  to  the  idea  of  the 
tendency  of  matter  to  repose. 

At  present  many  physicists  maintain  an  idea  oppo- 
site   to    that    of    the   ancients    but   equally   incorrect, 
affirming  that  movement  is  the  natural  state  or  inherent 
condition    of  things.     The    materialistic    conception    is 
obliged  either  to  endow  matter  with  movement  in  itself 
(automotion),   without    any    dissipation    of    manifested 
energy,  or  to  imagine  the  existence  of  material  motors 
in  nature  (abstract  forces),  which  would  impel   matter 
to  depart  from  its  natural  tendency  which  according  to 
such  a  supposition  is  a  state  of  repose.     The  modern 
concept  of  constant  or  persistent  movement,  according 
to  which  motion  is  supposed  to  be  an  essential  or  in- 
herent property  of  every  objective  element,  is  altogether 
materialistic.      But    if   matter   were    so,  every  element 
abandoned  to  itself  would  move  with  a  constant  velocity 
as  the   result  of  its  own  nature ;    this  is   directly    and 


I02 


IL   MATTER  IN  GENERAL   {COSTINUED). 


completely  contradicted  by  the  unquestionable  fact  of 
inertia  of  matter. 

Movement  must  be  truly  considered  as  the  universal 
state  of  manifested  objects  ;  not  as  an  attribute  inherent 
in  matter,  but  as  a  relative  effect,  because  movement 
can  only  be  admitted  as  an  indifferent  condition  in 
which  matter  may  or  may  not  be,  as  is  expressed  by  the 
principle  of  conservation  and  the  law  of  inertia  ;  so  if 
we  consider  matter  as  having  determined  movement  it 
will  continue  with  the  same  movement,  and  if  we  con- 
sider it  in  repose  it  will  remain  in  repose.  But  if  move- 
ment does  not  proceed  from  matter,  if  it  is  only  its 
physical  mode  of  being,  what  is  its  cause  .'*  Who  has 
put  matter  in  movement  t  Here  we  arrive  at  a  truly 
primordial  fact  of  creation,  and,  therefore,  the  actor  will 
be  the  Author  oi  all  things.  In  addition  to  this,  move- 
ment in  nature  is  not  absolutely  uniform ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  always  changing  as  a  proximate  result  of  the 
mutual  action  of  objective  elements.  And  what  is  the 
primordial  cause  of  such  a  change  in  movement?  It 
is  the  engendering  power  of  vitality  which  is  also  a  final 
or  ultimate  act.  Hence  we  have  two  classes  or  cate- 
gories of  causal  connection  in  material  activity :  first, 
engendered  forces,  i.e.  the  primordial  changes  or  move- 
ments of  nature  (potence  of  vitality) ;  and  second, 
derived  forces,  i.e.  the  secondary  changes  or  movements 
in  nature  (acts  of  mechanism  or  materiality).  By  the 
former  an  energy  is  manifested  greater  than  that  which 
was  spent,  and  by  the  latter  manifested  energy  is 
constantly  lost,  being  resolved  into  a  latent  or  potential 
state,  from  which  it  moves  to  the  actual  or  phenomenal 
state  by  the  acts  of  vitality,  so  closing  the  circle  of  life 
in  the  universal   system.     In  addition  to  this,  vitality 


20.   MASS. 


103 


includes  all  the  forms  of  materiality,  that  is,  all  kinds 
of  mechanical  acts,  which  are  afterwards  propagated  to 
the  inorganic  world  to  repair  the  loss  of  living  force. 

All  phenomenal  variations  or  extrinsic  manifestations 
imply  a  change  of  movement  whose  measure  is  the 
forces  which  may  be  propagated  into  another  manifested 
movement,  or  transferred  into  a  potential  one.  Now  if 
the  notion  of  one  object  is  unity,  how  does  it  produce 
such  plurality  in  the  manifestations  of  its  activity? 
Because  manifested  activity  results  from  composition 
of  forces,  although,  properly  speaking,  in  an  ultimate 
analysis  it  is  but  the  various  modes  of  the  sole  and 
persistent  state  of  movement  in  which  matter  is  always 
kept ;  and,  consequently,  objective  unity  is  relative  ;  the 
manifestations  varying  with  the  proportions  ia  which 
the  components  come  into  action — intermotion. 


§  20.  Mass  and  Movement. 

The  same  criticism  which  establishes  the  relativity 
of  movement  is  what  has  served  us  to  settle  the  rela- 
tivity of  activity,  space,  and  time  ;  thus  it  only  remains 
for  us  now  to  apply  what  is  said  about  the  relativity 
of  substance  to  that  of  mass  also. 

We  have  seen  that  the  terms  substance  and  activity 
are  in  reality  synonymous  and  not  complementary ; 
each  alone  truly  represents  the  whole  attributive  idea  of 
any  objective  thing ;  they  are  neither  separate  nor 
joined,  but  only  one  thing  alone.  Some  who  object,  as 
we  do,  to  the  asserted  distinction  of  realizing  such  abstrac- 
tions, try  to  explain  mechanism  by  saying  that  material 
activity  or  force  is  nothing  but  movement,  and  that  the 
only  thing  opposite  to  force  or  movement  is  mass.     But 


I04 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


they  fall  into  the  same  error,  because  mass  and  move- 
ment, like  matter  and  force,  are  not  complementary, 
they  are  inseparable ;  in  fact,  there  can  be  no  mass 
without  movement,  and  no  movement  without  mass. 
What,  then,  do  these  words  mean  ?  Like  substance  and 
activity,  they  are  nothing  but  symbols  of  concepts  of 
mental  abstractions  taken  from  cosmic  mechanism, 
physiological  universe,  or  material  nature.  Thus,  when 
we  refer  to  mass,  we  mean  the  measure  of  the  force  of 
gravity  exclusively,  which  is  a  resultant  of  movement ; 
but  because  of  this  we  must  not  forget  that  that  which 
may  be  a  manifested  object  cannot  be  passive  matter  ; 
that  when  we  speak  of  active  movement  it  is  only  to 
differentiate  it  from  relative  repose,  as  objects  are  always 
in  movement  either  actual  or  potential.  It  is  evident 
that  a  pure  movement,  separate  from  all  bodies,  is  an 
impossibility  ;  and  we  must  say  the  same  of  the  other 
correlative  terms,  the  true  proposition  being  that  in  the 
real  concept  of  any  of  the  terms,  matter,  mass,  force,  or 
movement,  the  four  conceptual  elements  are  compre- 
hended— that  is  to  say,  the  four  universal  abstractions 
or  simple  categories  of  object :  substance,  activity,  space, 
and  time.  Mass  is  the  measure  of  some  movement 
propagated  from  one  object  to  another,  and  its  intensity 
depends  on  the  relation  among  the  four  abstractions 
here  mentioned.  What  is  said  here  of  mass  may 
be  said  also  of  the  other  three  terms  which  are  in 
reality  correlative  with  mass.  Matter,  if  it  is  ponder- 
able, is  measured  by  mass ;  mass  is  measured  by 
the  force  of  the  gravitating  resistance  ;  and  movement 
is  measured  either  by  mass  and  velocity  or  by  velocity 
alone.  Nevertheless,  physicists  speak  of  mass  and  move- 
ment not  only  as  real  elements  of  matter,  but  also  as 


^ASS»^iii'lS*I^ISi^UaM 


2a  MASS, 


105 


alwaj's  existing  each  in  the  same  quantity  in  cosmos ; 
this  affirmation  also,  thus  enunciated,  completely  lacks 
foundation,  because  mass  and  movement,  as  well  as  any 
other  relation,  are  susceptible  of  increase  and  diminution. 
Again,  in  ordinary  Mechanics  mass  and  inertia  are  con- 
sidered as  synonymous  terms,  and  are  measured  by  the 
force  of  acceleration  or  of  deviation  in  the  movement  of 
a  body — that  is,  by  the  force  which  is  necessary  to 
propagate  movement  to  a  given  body  in  order  to  deter- 
mine in  it  some  velocity.  This  use  of  the  words  mass 
and  inertia  is  of  course  limited  to  ponderable  or  atomic 
matter  alone,  with  the  abstraction  of  the  differences  of 
place  or  position  of  bodies. 

Mass,  movement,  matter,  and  force  are  not  only 
inseparable  concepts  in  reality,  but  they  are  not  even 
separable  in  thought.  All  are  terms  of  relation  among 
objects  of  sensible  experience,  without  any  difference 
among  them  than  that  which  they  have  in  abstract 
language  on  account  of  the  omissions  or  ellipses  which 
are  necessary  to  scientific  explanations.  Such  differences 
are  therefore  only  verbal  ;  they  are  only  differences  in 
words,  and  not  in  the  real  or  true  propositional  sense. 
We  need  not  refer  back  to  the  realism  of  the  Middle 
Ages  to  see  the  conceptual  elements  of  things  confounded 
with  objects  of  sensation ;  such  an  error  has  caused 
modern  physicists  to  cheat  themselves  into  interpreting 
nature  by  their  mechanical  atomic  theories.  This  error 
has  produced  the  most  contradictory  consequences,  and 
has  given  rise  to  endless  discussions  without  any 
foundation.  Mass  is  not  a  real  thing  or  individual 
entity  which  can  be  directly  presented  to  the  observation 
of  the  senses,  or  that  can  be  known  objectively  by 
thought.     It  is  nothing  more  than  a  definite  determina- 


io6 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


tion  by  thought  in  the  relations  or  mutual  dependence 
of  matter  in  movement  ;  it  is  merely  a  result  of 
calculation  of  movements  whose  measure  is  the  dynamic 
correlation  between  the  antecedents  and  consequents  of 
a  physical  change.  Nevertheless,  mass,  like  physical 
force,  is  a  term  of  quantitative  relations  necessary  in  our 
discourse  and  in  our  thoughts.  The  measure  of  the 
mass  of  a  body  is  inverse  to  the  acceleration  produced 
by  a  given  force,  and  the  measure  of  force  is  determined 
by  the  acceleration  produced  in  a  given  mass,  of  course 
referring  to  ponderable  matter.  The  ordinary  method 
to  determine  the  mass  of  bodies  by  their  weight  is 
merely  an  arbitrary  agreement  among  scientists  ;  it  is 
not  based  in  the  nature  of  anything.  Moreover,  the 
weight  of  a  body  does  not  depend  on  itself  in  absolute, 
but  on  its  relation  with  others,  differing  according  to  the 
position  of  the  body,  and  especially  according  to  its  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  earth,  because  the 
velocity  of  falling  bodies  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
greater  than  if  the  experiment  is  made  at  a  great  elevation, 
as  is  proved  by  the  oscillations  of  the  pendulum. 


§21.   Universal  Attraction  (which  would    be 
better  called  atomic  gravitation). 

If  activity  of  nature  cannot  be  absolutely  inde- 
pendent and  proper  to  matter  but  must  relatively  de- 
pend on  what  is  a  genuine  cause,  what  is  the  true 
interpretation  of  the  so-called  universal  attraction  and 
of  its  law  in  relation  to  distances  ?  Physicists  say  that 
matter  attracts  itself  with  an  intensity  which  varies 
according  to  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  square  of  the 
distance.     In  this  manner  they  admit  an  abstract  force 


21.   ATTRACTION 


107 


or  specific  cause  which  is  not  merely  matter  but  some- 
thing united  to  it,  so  separating  the  cause  of  an  act, 
which  is  the  agent  in  itself  and  therefore  a  thing,  from 
the  field  of  action,  which  by  a  peculiarity  of  nature 
under  appropriate  conditions  is  converted  into  the 
apparent  cause  of  the  act.  This  is  the  same  as  to  deny 
the  fact  that  substance  and  activity  are  only  abstractions 
of  reality,  and  not  two  different  things. 

How,  then,  must  we  explain  the  appearance  of  facts 
according  to  the  so-called  law  of  universal  attraction  ? 
Only  by  propagated  impulse  ;  thus,  in  gravity,  for 
instance,  as  the  surface  of  the  spheres  varies  with  the 
squares  of  their  radii,  an  energy,  in  order  to  be  centri- 
petally  propagated,  must  be  distributed  in  four  times 
less  quantity  of  matter  in  another  sphere  of  half  the 
diameter,  where,  therefore,  the  energy  will  be  four  times 
more  intense  than  in  a  surface  of  the  same  extension 
but  corresponding  to  the  greater  sphere.  The  centri- 
petal impulse,  then,  will  increase  according  to  the  ratio 
of  the  square  of  the  distance.  Hence  the  fact  of 
gravitation  must  be  explained  by  pressure,  that  is  to 
say,  the  force  of  gravity  cannot  be  attraction  but  only 
the  measure  of  an  impulsive  movement.  We  cannot 
study  the  generation  of  such  an  impulse  until  we  treat 
of  Synthetic  Physiology  (Part  II.  Chap.  VII.). 

To  produce  any  material  interaction  we  must  sup- 
pose matter  in  immediate  continuity  or  contact,  as  it 
cannot  do  anything  else  but  propagate  movement  by 
impulse.  In  matter  there  can  be  no  attraction,  nor 
can  there  be  any  influence  acting  at  a  distance,  because 
to  admit  this  would  be  the  same  as  to  recognize  that 
every  particle  of  matter  must  be  omnipresent  and  om- 
nipotent.     We  must  give  a  brief  dissertation  on   this 


ic8 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED'). 


point  to  settle  the  most  transcendental  truth  of  the 
Physiological  Theory  here  set  forth  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  satisfy,  not  only  the  intuition  of  facts,  but  also  our 
rational  intelligence,  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of 
thought,  and  with  the  principle  of  conservation. 

We  cannot  conceive  matter  as  containing  inherent 
forces,   either  of  attraction  or  repulsion,  but  as  deter- 
mining different  forms  of  manifestation  by  the  mutual 
action  of  the  parts,   according  as  these  vary  in    their 
circumstances  ;  because  force,  as  we  have  seen  already, 
is  nothing  more  than  an  abstraction   of  the  forms  of 
physiological  activity.     It  is  also  absurd  to  define  force 
as  the  unknown   cause  of  phenomena,  as   is  expressed 
by  the  phrase,  "  force  of  attraction,"  for  this  will  lead  to 
the  belief  that  forces  are  things,  as  only  things  can  be 
causes  ;  and  besides,  as  the  only  aim  of  our  speculation 
is    to    find    the   proximate    causes    of  phenomena,    the 
final  result  will  be  that  only  forces  could  be  recognized, 
which  is  the  erroneous  conclusion  of  pure  dynamism. 
If  force  in  general  and  attraction  in  particular  were  real 
things,  we  ought  to  know  where  they  come  from  and 
how  they  can  be  engendered  so  as  to  fill  space.     If  at- 
traction is  supposed  as  an  influence  alone,  then  we  have 
only  a  figure  of  speech  without  real  signification  ;  and 
if,  according  to  most  physicists,  attraction  is  supposed 
as  a  cause  inherent  to  matter  and  therefore   as  some- 
thing really  different  from  material   things,  this  would 
lead  to  an  incomprehensible  dualism  in  which  the  forces 
will  be  as  things  different  from   the   manifested  being, 
and    nevertheless  will   not   be  anything  separate  from 
the  objects.     Admitting  this  contradiction,  attraction,  in 
order  to  produce  effects,  should  pass  from  one  thing  to 
another,  and  in  the  case  of  gravitation  as  is  explained 


V 


21.   ATTRACTION. 


109 


I'l 


1 


I 


by  the  hypothesis  of  attraction,  when  a  body  is  at- 
tracted, as  the  authors  say,  by  the  sun,  for  instance,  and 
between  that  body  and  the  sun  there  are  some  other 
bodies  interposed,  these  do  not  intercept  the  action, 
because  attraction,  they  say,  passes  to  the  other  side  ! 
If  we  were  to  admit  this  action  at  a  distance,  we  would 
also  be  obliged  to  connote  that  the  real  agents  of  the 
system  are  removed  by  attraction  throughout  all  the 
space  of  the  universe.  But  nobody  can  arrive  at  an 
understanding  of  the  real  sense  or  the  possibility  that 
things  could  act  at  a  point  where  they  are  not,  no  more 
than  it  can  be  intelligible  that  an  object  acts  in  the 
time  during  which  it  does  not  exist.  When  one  thing 
is  said  to  attract  another,  that  is,  when  it  is  said  that 
one  thing  acts  separately  from  another,  this  is,  we 
repeat,  to  attribute  absolute  omnipresence  to  every- 
thing, which  will  lead  to  the  false  conclusion  that  there 
is  no  more  right  in  saying  that  objects  and  their  par- 
ticles are  in  any  one  place  than  to  say  that  they  are  in 
another,  for  the  reason  that  the  objects  are  referred  to 
the  place  of  their  activity.  Then,  the  same  object 
could  be  in  one  place  and  all  places  at  the  same  time, 
and  so  be  considered  as  an  Infinite  Being,  but  as  the 
infinite  cannot  be  anything  in  the  series  of  phenomenal 
determinations,  and  as  these  are  what  give  us  a  know- 
ledge of  the  objects,  the  result  would  be  the  paradox 
of  denying  the  existence  of  matter. 

Accordingly,  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  Uni- 
versal Attraction  so-called  ;  and  so  we  group  acts  of 
this  kind  under  the  denomination  of  Atomic  Gravita- 
tion, which  is  simply  a  mechanical  effect  resulting  from 
ethereal  (progenic)  impulse. 


iSitebiifa» 


no  //.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


§  22.  Physiological  or  Physical  Change. 

In  a  material  sense,  i.e.  in  the  objective  world, 
change  implies  causal  continuity ;  in  fact,  change  is  only 
a  different  mode  of  the  manner  of  being,  object,  which  is 
always  dynamic,  and  constantly  keeps  a  relation,  that 
is,  a  law  in  whose  succession  the  passing  from  one  con- 
dition to  another  determines  the  present,  and  this  the 
future  ;  change  would  otherwise  involve  contradiction 
to  the  idea  of  identity  in  the  thing  itself  through  all  its 
mutations  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  would  affirm  that  a  thing 
could  be  and  could  not  be  at  the  same  time.  For  our 
understanding  material  change  is  nothing  but  a  quanti- 
tative relation,  and  from  this  it  results  that  it  does  not 
demand  any  other  foundation  than  consistency  in  the 
field  of  thought.  Physical  or  material  change  has  no 
real  signification  as  an  existing  thing  ;  its  meaning  is 
figurative,  making  the  ellipsis  or  omission  of  the 
object  ;  there  is  nothing  really  existing  as  change  alone, 
the  objects  themselves  are  those  which  change  in  their 
movement  as  they  vary  in  the  modes  of  their  activity. 

Neither  change  in  general  nor  change  of  movement 
in  particular  can  be  defined  except  by  terms  which 
express  the  same  idea  as  that  which  we  try  to  define, 
the  subject  and  the  predicate  being  synonymous  or 
tautological  expressions.  Change,  like  the  other  ultimate 
notions  of  our  understanding,  cannot  be  derived  from 
any  other ;  mental  reflection  forms  its  concept  only  by 
experience,  so  that  it  cannot  be  communicated  by 
words ;  thus  we  observe  that  cosmos  is  in  perpetual  or 
continuous  change,  all  its  parts  following  an  order  of 
antecedents  and  consequents  in  which  a  second    term 


22.    CHANGE. 


Ill 


-■? 


'■1 


or  effect  becomes  a  first  term  or  relative  cause  and  so 
on.  But  our  senses  cannot  discover  all  the  changes 
of  nature,  and  it  happens  also  that  the  incessant  repro- 
duction of  a  similar  change  may  produce  in  our  minds 
the  appearance  of  a  constant  situation  or  absolute 
repose.  From  this  arises  the  relative  distinction  between 
potential  and  manifested  changes,  calling  the  last  pheno- 
menal. We  must  not  forget  that  for  reason  at  least,  if 
not  for  the  senses,  potential  changes  denote  activity,  and 
consequently  actuality  as  well  as  phenomenal  changes. 
Again,  we  repeat,  we  must  admit  and  recognize  that 
natural  knowledge  is  not  under  the  control  of  irre- 
flexive  experience ;  that  what  is  called  also  positive 
knowledge  lies  beyond  sensual  observation,  and  that 
there  only  the  highest  power  can  penetrate ;  with  this 
motive,  and  in  accordance  with  Greek  etymology,  we 
may  say  that  among  the  changes  some  are  "pheno- 
mena," and  others  "  noumena,"  giving  this  last  quali- 
fication to  those  which  are  under  the  control  of  reason, 
though  this  derives  them  by  reflecting  on  the  pheno- 
menal or  manifested  antecedents.  Objects  thus  succeed 
each  other  in  this  eternal  change  of  cosmos,  so  consti- 
tuting a  continuous  process  in  which  some  changes  are 
often  discovered  in  a  manner  manifest  to  the  senses, 
while  others  appear  as  latent  or  imperceptible,  and  from 
this  arises  the  distinction  already  established  between 
phenomenal  and  potential  states  of  matter. 

How  can  we  amalgamate  change  and  unity  in  things? 
ask  the  philosophers.  They  resolve  this  question  either  by 
denying  change,  as  do  the  eclectics,  or  by  denying  unity, 
as  do  the  heraclitos.  Some  factor  in  things  must  remain 
relatively  fixed  or  permanent  in  order  to  make  known 
to  us  their  constant  individuality;  in  truth  the  knowledge 


112 


//.    MATTER  IN  GENERAL   ''CONTINUED). 


23.  INERTIA. 


"3 


of  the  notion  of  change  reveals  to  us  the  existence  of 
some  factor,  which  from  its  greater  constancy  serves  as 
a  standard  of  comparison  for  the  more  mutable  changes. 
It  is  a  contradiction  to  affirm  that  there  can  be  absolute 
identity  and  absolute  change  at  the  same  time,  but 
identity  and  change  are  not  incompatible  in  objective 
relations  ;  that  is  to  say,  when  a  thing  changes  it  is  and 
is  not  the  same  before  and  after  the  change,  because  it 
is  neither  equal  nor  different  in  absolute,  it  is  only  so  in 
a  relative  sense,  for  change  does  not  consist  in  an 
absolute  transference  of  things  from  one  to  another ; 
it  only  varies  relations  at  a  time.  In  this  question 
most  metaphysicians  maintain  an  ontological  idea  which 
is  quite  arbitrary  and  opposed  to  scientific  understand- 
ing. They  say  that  a  thing  cannot  exist  in  different 
states,  because,  when  it  takes  on  a  new  state  it  is  trans- 
formed into  a  new  thing ;  but,  in  physiologic  science 
above  all,  we  understand  that  when  water,  for  instance, 
changes  its  state,  though  it  is  not  the  same  in  absolute 
in  one  state  as  in  the  other,  we  always  estimate  it  as 
being  the  same  thing — water,  but  in  a  different  state. 
The  ontological  error  before  stated  arises  from  the  false 
conception  of  being  which  controls  all  the  systems  of 
transformism,  and  the  conclusions  of  such  ontological 
thoughts  are  that  objects  exist  in  an  incessant  pro- 
gressive change  in  the  perpetual  process  of  nature,  that 
objects  themselves  force  one  another  to  pass  to  different 
forms,  that  nothing  rests  in  the  same  state  ;  and  so  the 
transformists  say  "  everything  is  constantly  transformed, 
things  as  they  appear  being  only  the  links  in  an  eternal 
chain,  or  a  transient  ebb  and  flow  in  the  current  of  the 
world,  all  passing  and  ending  thus  except  the  change  in 
the  things  themselves."     But  if  all  could  pass  in  this 


k- 


manner,  even  the  law  of  correlation  of  quantity  could 
not  remain,  as  it  is  nothing  independent  from  the  reality 
of  the  things  themselves,  it  being  only  a  mental  abstrac- 
tion. So  we  see  that  such  an  erroneous  conception  of 
change  is  one  proof  more  against  transformism. 

In  every  part  of  nature  we  find  only  efifects,  and  we 
must  add  that  these  effects  become  in  turn  causes, 
not  primordial  but  derived  ;  but  we  never  find  in  the 
changes  of  the  physical  world  either  the  prime  cause  or 
the  ultimate  effect ;  every  object  must  be  conceived  as 
a  cause  in  the  mechanism  of  nature,  but  as  an  effect  in 
universal  organism  or  system.  For  this  reason  the 
expressions  cause  (excepting  the  Creator),  effect,  and 
change  are  relative ;  still  more,  change  in  a  physical 
sense  denotes  variation  in  the  sole  form  of  activity  of 
which  nature  is  capable,  that  is,  movement. 

§  23.  Inertia  of  Matter. 

What  has  hitherto  been  said  in  this  chapter  obliges 
us  to  give  a  correct  scientific  interpretation  to  the  word 
inertia,  because  in  its  etymological  sense  it  is  a  contra- 
diction to  the  concept  of  persistent  activity  of  matter. 
We  cannot  acquire  the  idea  of  action  in  things  if  we 
suppose  them  absolutely  inert,  nor  can  we  comprehend 
the  changes  in  nature  if  we  consider  it  as  constituted  of 
particles  completely  at  rest,  because  in  order  to  be  per- 
ceptible a  thing  must  determine  an  action  of  which  it  is 
the  proximate  cause,  for  all  sensual  ideas  must  neces- 
sarily have  cause  and  effect,  that  is  to  say,  actor  and 
action ;  so  we  insist  on  affirming  that  a  concept  of 
absolutely  inert  matter  is  an  erroneous  abstraction  of 
our  irreflexive  experience.     Matter  may  appear  to  the 

I 


E*. 


114  II.  MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


23.   INERTIA. 


"5 


eye  as  inert  or  as  a  recipient  of  action,  but  our  reason 
penetrates  into  the  truth  that  such  an  idea  is  a  contra- 
diction, because  anything  acting  on  that  which  is  sup- 
posed  to   be    absolutely  passive   could    not   determine 
reaction,  and  therefore  is  an  impossibility  for  our  rational 
intelligence.     Thus  we  have  seen  that  when  an  object 
appears  to  be  in  repose  or  inactive,  reflection  teaches  us 
that  it  follows  in  a  state  of  incessant  activities  which  are 
neutralized  or  compensated  because  they  act  in  contrary 
directions;    that    is    to   say,   repose    is    an    equilibrium 
resulting  from  the  opposition  of  energies  in  a  part  of  the 
universal  system    arbitrarily  limited  for  our  views  and 
purpose.     In  cosmos  all  is    in    incessant    activity,  and 
everything  is  in  the  most  complex  connections  with  all 
others  as  the  result  of  intermotion  ;  hence  sensation  or 
irreflexive  experience  deceives  us  when  it  accepts  the 
existence  of  passive  objects.     The  dynamic  conception 
of  matter  is  the  only  one  which  in  its  elemental  as  much 
as  in  its  massive  form  affirms  the  reality  of  nature  as  it 
exists ;  that  is,  always  in  activity  or  movement. 

Accordingly  inertia  cannot  signify  absolute  pas- 
sivity ;  analyzing  its  law  we  discover  in  it  a  double 
meaning.  In  one  sense  it  denies  the  spontaneity  of 
matter  as  to  change  in  its  relations  of  space ;  this  sig- 
nifies that  matter  is  never  an  automaton,  and  that  a 
body,  in  order  to  change  its  place,  must  be  impulsed  by 
another,  but  inertia  does  not  imply  that  the  material 
elements  are  lacking  in  relative  and  derived  activity, 
for  the  constituent  parts  of  bodies  are  in  mutual  action, 
and  liable  to  a  great  variety  of  changes.  We  must 
always  keep  in  mind  that  every  visible  thing  is  con- 
stituted of  many  invisible  parts,  and  that  the  law  of 
inertia,  although  connoting  these  parts,  only  expresses 


what  appears  to  the  experience  of  the  bodily  whole. 
In  the  other  meaning  the  law  of  inertia  states  that 
ponderable  matter  offers  resistance  to  change  in  its 
relations  of  space  ;  the  phrase  "  force  of  inertia  "  being 
derived  from  this  fact,  although  there  is  a  contradiction 
in  its  own  enunciation,  and  such  a  resistance  of  ponder- 
able matter  is  a  true  force  useful  in  mechanics,  and 
therefore  implies  activity. 

Hence,  the  word  inertia  has  not  the  same  signification 
in  the  scientific  or  technical  as  in  the  ordinary  or  vulgar 
sense;  in  the  technical  sense  it  does  not  exclude  the 
idea  that  all  matter  must  have  power,  activity,  or  energy, 
relative  and  derived,  of  course,  although  many  times 
observation  does  not  directly  reveal  to  us  the  sensation 
of  movement,  nor  that  of  change.  It  is  a  truth  that 
the  law  of  inertia  thus  interpreted  is  perhaps  the  best 
established  fact  in  Physiology,  and  it  can  be  said  that 
all  universal  mechanics  or  the  whole  theory  of  Physi- 
ology is  based  on  it,  the  results  of  experience  being 
constantly  true  in  accordance  with  this  law. 

Some  philosophers  and  physicists,  with  the  aim  of 
excluding  the  immaterial  from  the  universal  system, 
have  proclaimed  as  a  principle  that  the  law  of  inertia 
is  a  necessity  of  thought ;  they  say  that  our  understand- 
ing can  immediately  penetrate  the  idea  that  a  body  is 
inert,  that  is  to  say,  that  a  body  cannot  stop  moving 
of  itself;  that  if  it  is  in  repose  it  must  necessarily  con- 
tinue in  repose,  and  if  it  is  in  movement  it  will  continue 
moving  with  uniformity  in  a  straight  line  unless  inter- 
rupted by  the  interference  of  some  other  body.  Such 
a  law  is  only  the  abstract  expression  of  mechanical 
facts,  and  therefore  it  cannot  be  qualified  as  an  evident 
principle  by  itself,  that  is  as  a  necessity  of  thought  by 


ii6 


//.  MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


its  simple  enunciation.  If  we  observe  that  a  fact  occurs 
in  a  determinate  manner,  this  does  not  permit  us  to  affirm 
that  the  fact  must  be  so  in  the  absence  of  true  proof 
Although  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  to  deny  that 
an  element  if  existing  alone  in  space  could  come  into 
movement,  as  movement  is  the  expression  of  the  rela- 
tion in  space  and  time  among  objects,  the  isolated 
existence  of  a  particle  in  empty  space  is  an  idea  opposed 
to  reality,  because  the  particles  have  their  existence 
and  properties  only  in  the  system  of  which  they  form 
a  part.  The  sole  use  of  such  an  illusion  is  to  in- 
culcate the  law  of  inertia  in  the  mind,  but  it  must 
never  be  considered  as  an  argument ;  and  yet  nobody 
can  affirm  that  an  element  alone  in  space  could  be 
capable  of  existing  in  movement.  We  may  say  the 
same  about  the  persistent  direction  of  movement  which 
is  affirmed  by  the  law  of  inertia ;  therefore  there  is  not 
sufficient  reason  in  this  enunciation  to  consider  it  as  an 
evident  truth.  Furthermore,  the  fact  of  the  law  of 
inertia  is  a  corollary  of  the  principle  of  conservation 
according  to  which  a  natural  force  can  neither  produce 
nor  destroy  a  definite  movement  in  its  direction  or  in 
its  velocity.  Again,  if  we  consider  the  facts  of  experi- 
ence as  they  are,  we  never  see  anything  in  the  world 
which  always  remains  in  absolute  repose,  nor  do  we  see 
anything  in  the  world  moving  with  uniform  velocity  and 
in  a  straight  line.  Therefore,  the  law  of  inertia  does 
not  account  for  the  constant  changes  of  the  natural 
existence  of  things  in  variable  movement ;  it  takes 
movement  separately  as  a  figurative  abstraction,  and 
from  mere  fictions  and  impossible  cases  derives  the 
deductions  for  reality ;  the  idea  of  system  is  then  over- 
looked by  those  who,  intending  to  find  in  nature  supreme 


23.   INERTIA, 


117 


laws,  commit  at  the  same  time  the  peculiar  paradox  of 
denying  the  existence  of  the  universal  system,  which 
needs  the  government  of  a  supreme  intelligence,  the 
only  one  that  can  be  causal  law.  All  scientific  laws, 
including  that  of  inertia,  express  only  some  relation  of 
mechanical  effects. 

The  realization  of  abstractions  is  nothing  in  material 
reality,  and  nothing  can  be  imagined  or  can  be  con- 
ceived as  resulting  from  it ;  therefore  it  is  as  impossible 
to  construct  an  object  by  a  synthesis  of  abstract  forces 
as  it  is  by  the  aggregation  of  corpuscles  absolutely  inert 
or  passive.     Everything  in  the  universe  is  subordinated 
to  the  purpose  and  fixed  aim  of  the  Creator,  who  con- 
tinually  determines  the  manifested  activity  of  nature 
by  inorganic  generation  ;  in  organism  the  transforma- 
tion of  potential  (not  manifested)  changes  into  actual 
or  phenomenal  is  constantly  produced  ;  we  can  never 
find    in    any   object    the   principle   of   such    constant 
activity ;    this  always  results  from  the  propagation  of 
movement  among  objects,  and  this  is  the  true  idea  of 
the  inertia  of  matter.     Hence  inertia  does  not  presup- 
pose want  of  effected,  but  of  causal  activity ;  the  differ- 
ence  between  the  agency  of   life   and   the   inertia   of 
matter  is   that  the  former  produces    manifested  gene- 
ration, while  inertia  in  bodies  only  shows  propagation 
with  phenomenal  loss.     Death  does  not  signify  annihi- 
lation, but  a  ceasing  of  the  generation  of  "  living  force," 
which  is  the  measure  of  manifested  changes.     In  order 
that  a  latent  change  in  a  body  should  become  patent 
or  phenomenal  some  antecedent  determining  such  con- 
version is  necessary ;  the  organisms  are  the  only  labo- 
ratories or  machines  for  such  a  metamorphosis,  in  which 
there  is  profit  or  multiplication  of  disposable  force,  and 


Ii8  //.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 

therefore  the  true  Primordial  Cause  of  activity  in  the 
natural  system  acts  directly  in  them.  For  this  reason  we 
have  repeatedly  said  that  the  primordial  effect  in  cosmos 
is  organic  generation,  and  accordingly  from  this  all 
physiological  phenomena  must  be  derived. 

Inertia  essentially  presupposes  force  instead  of  being 
its  opposite  term,  as  appears  from  the  etymological 
sense  and  vulgar  application  of  the  word.  Even  the 
definitions  of  the  ancients  express  correlation  between 
inertia  and  force,  although,  like  most  of  our  contempo- 
raries, they  were  under  the  control  of  the  same  onto- 
logical  error.  Thus,  in  accordance  with  Newton,  many 
authors  have  defined  inertia  as  an  inherent  force  of 
matter,  by  virtue  of  which  matter  has  in  itself  the 
power  to  resist  any  change  from  the  state  of  repose  and 
of  uniform  rectilinear  movement.  Some  modern  authors, 
trying  to  reconcile  the  vulgar  with  the  scientific  sense 
of  the  word  inertia,  say  that  matter  is  powerless  to 
change  its  situation  of  repose  or  of  movement  on 
account  of  the  effect  of  the  resistance  of  mass — that  is, 
of  the  quantity  of  matter  considered  as  resistant  to  the 
communication  of  movement.  This  is  neither  more  nor 
less  than  the  definition  of  Newton  ;  it  declares  the  fact, 
but  leaves  it  without  explanation. 

Absolute  inertia,  like  passive  matter  or  mass  in 
absolute,  is  nothing.  If  for  a  misinterpreted  illusion  we 
try  to  conceive  a  body  as  isolated  in  absolute — that  is, 
alone,  without  any  connection  with  others,  we  cannot 
obtain  even  the  idea  of  a  passive  body,  because  all 
manifestation  results  from  the  mutual  action  among 
bodies,  and  therefore  a  truly  passive  object  could  not  be 
anything  perceived  by  the  senses — that  is,  it  could  not 
be  known  to  us. 


24.   CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY. 


119 


/ 


\ 


The  law  of  inertia  embraces  the  animate  as  well  as 
the  inanimate  world,  the  organism  of  rational  as  well  as 
of  irrational  beings.  All  propagations  of  material  activity 
are  engendered,  but  how  we  do  not  know  ;  we  can  only 
say  that  organized  matter  is  as  incapable  as  inorganic 
is  of  originating  or  producing  a  primordial  activity. 
Accordingly,  the  law  of  inertia  simply  denies  sponta- 
neity in  nature  ;  a  change  of  material  conditions  is 
always  an  effect  which  presupposes  some  cause  with 
reference  to  the  relations  of  space  and  time,  and  nothing 
more. 

§  24.  Conservation  of  Energy  :  Ultimate 
Principle  of  Mechanism. 

Movement  and  repose  are  not  opposite  facts,  but  a 
purely  relative  distinction,  although  we  may  consider 
any  object  in  the  universe  either  in  repose  or  in  move- 
ment, according  to  the  point  we  take  as  a  standard  of 
comparison.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a  common  occurrence 
with  philosophers  of  nature  to  suppose  they  can  con- 
ciliate in  thought  the  absolute  reality  of  movement 
and  repose  with  their  apparent  phenomenal  relativity. 
To  heighten  this  error,  some  have  admitted  in  space  a 
centre  or  point  in  absolute  repose,  to  which  they  could 
refer  the  position  of  all  bodies  in  absolute  ;  but  this  is 
no  more  than  an  expression  of  chimerical  language, 
abusing  its  power  by  making  it  express  even  the  incon- 
ceivable—phrases without  any  signification  of  course 
being  the  result.  Movement  is  the  general  fact  that  has 
been  recognized  in  all  mutation  or  material  change, 
whether  the  energy  is  or  is  not  manifested  directly  to 
our  senses.     It  is  the  ultimatum  in  our  understanding 


120 


//.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


for  the  interpretation  of  phenomena  and  potentiality  of 
nature ;  beyond  that  our  rational  experience  cannot 
reach.  Movement,  being  an  abstraction,  cannot  be  any- 
thing primordial  ;  there  must  exist  some  why  or  where- 
fore in  order  that  objects  should  move.  Observation 
proves  to  us  the  constant  loss  of  mechanical  force ;  for 
if  a  constant  reparation  were  not  experienced  in  the 
world  all  physiological  manifestations  would  soon  cease. 
From  this  true  concept  of  material  inertia  we  infer  the 
ultimate  induction  of  mechanism — the  principle  of  con- 
servation  of  energy. 

To  find  the  general  law  or  sole  synthesis  of  the 
material  world  has  always  been  the  unanimous  desire  of 
the  great  scientists,  and  a  comprehensive  law  of  all 
cosmic  mechanism  has  been  found  in  the  quantitative 
relation  of  the  following  law,  which  denotes  only  a  rela- 
tive unity  ;  in  nature  there  is  conservation  or  persistence 
of  the  same  quantity  of  moving  matter.  Reason  proves 
that  this  great  principle  of  quantity  called  "conserva- 
tion "  is  a  true  and  just  one,  and  not  a  chimerical 
aspiration  of  science,  because  though  phenomena  are 
constantly  manifested  as  newly  engendered,  it  is  only 
by  propagation  of  latent  or  potential  into  phenomenal 
energy.  Hence  such  a  principle  of  conservation,  like 
the  law  of  inertia,  simply  means  that  material  energy  is 
never  annihilated  nor  created  in  absolute,  but  the  con- 
servation of  energy  in  its  actual  state  is  the  effect  of  a 
supreme  act  upon  organism. 

In  apparent  opposition  to  this' unity  of  Cosmos, 
observation  supplies  us  with  a  multiplicity  of  qualities 
of  objects  which  are  separately  perceived  by  irreflexive 
mind  as  different  sensations  altogether.  Our  conscious- 
ness, in  truth,  perceives   the  different  sensations  as  if 


24.    CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY. 


121 


they  were  many  primordial  properties,  and  consequently 
in  the  attributions  or  qualities  we  do  not  find  any  reason 
common  to  all  objects  which  could  explain  the  unity  of 
cosmos  ;  such  a  reason  we  find  only  in  objective  rela- 
tions. Let  us  now  see  what  kind  of  relation  explains 
such  a  unity.  We  know  that  the  establishment  of  a 
relation  or  proportion  of  quantity  needs  at  least  two 
perceptions,  and  the  act  of  mental  repetition  gives  us 
the  idea  of  number — that  is,  the  difference  between 
unity  and  plurality.  We  also  know  that  quantity  can  be 
either  discrete  or  continuous.  With  discrete  quantity 
the  combinational  operations  of  mathematics  or  alge- 
braic calculations  are  made  ;  and  with  continuous 
quantity  the  extensional  operations  of  geometrical 
studies.  It  can  be  said  that  we  see  in  nature  infinite 
forms  of  extensional  or  continuous  quantity,  while 
combinational  or  discrete  quantity,  in  which  abstract 
number  is  implied,  supposes  invariability.  Besides, 
extrinsic  or  objective  perceptions  can  be  quantitatively 
compared ;  but  intrinsic  or  subjective  perceptions  cannot 
be  admitted  to  comparison  under  the  standard  of 
abstract  number.  Hence  the  capacities  of  the  mind 
cannot  be  mathematically  calculated.  This  can  be  done 
only  with  the  acts  of  the  material  world,  which  are 
manifested  by  the  senses  as  natural  phenomena,  and 
which  are  collected  by  our  understanding  as  a  basis 
for  natural  science — Physiology — under  the  principle  of 
conservation  with  the  standard  of  abstract  number. 
This  means  that  all  physiological  energies — phenomenal 
as  well  as  latent  changes — are  the  effect  of  matter  in 
movement,  this  being  always  equal  in  its  total  force, 
energy,  power  or  intensity ;  and  this  is  the  true  mathe- 
matical reason  of  the  relative  unity  of  cosmic  mechan- 


122 


11.   MATTER  IN  GENERAL  {CONTINUED). 


25.   ATOMS. 


123 


ism.  If  there  is  always  the  same  discrete  amount  of 
matter  in  movement  in  cosmos,  we  can  derive  from 
such  a  principle  all  the  other  physiological  laws  which 
are  considered  by  authors  as  primordial  laws  of  nature. 
Calling  R  and  F  the  cosmic  energies,  comprehending 
those  in  a  latent  state  as  well  as  those  manifested,  we 
can  condense  this  law  into  the  formula  R  =  F,  that  is, 
the  resulting  energy  of  a  change  equals  the  force 
employed  to  produce  it.  But  this  axiom  of  persistence, 
or  conservation  of  energy,  needs  a  universal  reason  ; 
this  is  the  vital  or  organic  postulate  called  the  principle 
of  unifonnity  of  nature^  which  must  depend  on  the 
existence  of  only  one  primordial  power — that  is  to  say, 
on  the  absolute  unity  of  the  Supreme.  Hence  we  pro- 
claim a  true  scientific  monotheism,  according  to  which 
only  one  cause  of  uniform  involution  of  inert  matter 
exists,  and  that  is  the  Creator.  Cosmos  as  mechanism 
is  a  simple  machine  which,  in  order  to  develop  its  func- 
tions, uniformly  needs  a  governing  power ;  but  this 
does  not  come  within  the  province  of  Physiology. 

In  fine,  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy 
is  neither  more  nor  less  than  the  law  of  inertia,  and 
represents  but  a  generalization  of  the  facts  of  inertia  of 
matter.  To  understand  it  thoroughly  needs  the  full 
study  of  this  work,  and  for  this  reason  we  reserve  for 
the  last  chapter  and  conclusion  the  complement  of  its 
explanation. 


CHAPTER   III. 

PONDERABLE  MATTER  :  ATOMIC  THEORY. 

§  25.   Real  existence  of  atoms— §  26.    Disagreement  among    atomists— 
§  27.  Atomic   properties   so   miscalled -§  28.  "Unity"  erroneousl 
derived  from  atomism — 29.   Recapitulation  of  the  concept  of  atoms. 

§  25.  Real  Existence  of  Atoms. 

In  this  century  the  atomic  hypothesis  has  been  the 
conception  of  most  general  application  to  the  study  of 
nature,  and  yet  the  determination  of  the  atom  is  a 
problem  impossible  to  solve.  Most  modern  physicists 
and  chemists  consider  the  question  of  the  atom  as  solved 
with  evident  proofs,  founding  their  belief  in  the  assertion 
of  the  practical  limit  of  the  divisibility  of  bodies  from 
which  we  cannot  pass  by  the  physiological  or  physico- 
chemical  actions  which  are  at  our  disposal. 

Many  philosophers,  and  some  physicists  also,  on  the 
contrary,  fight  against  the  atomic  hypothesis,  saying  that 
matter  is  absolutely  continuous,  and  therefore  that  space 
is  completely  full.  The  chief  and  pretentious  idea  of  the 
non-atomic  hypothesis  is  to  establish  more  surely  the  fan- 
tastic notion  of  the  pure  individuality  of  things.  Those 
who  maintain  such  an  idea  say  that  the  concept  of  matter 
is  one  alone,  and  that  for  this  reason  we  must  take  into 
consideration  all  objective  things  as  being  also  one  with- 


124 


///.  PONDERABLE  MATTER, 


25.   ATOMS, 


125 


out  any  discontinuity,  because,  they  add,  the  plurality 
of  things  is  owing  only  to  accidents  or  modifications  of 
matter  which  is  always  one  and  the  same  thing.  But  what 
has  continuity  to  do  with  identity  ?  Such  an  idea  does 
not  need  further  comment  to  show  the  evident  falsity  of 
the  arguments  on  which  it  is  based  ;  and,  besides,  the 
concept  of  absolute  continuity  of  bodies  is  contradicted 
by  true  empirical  laws.  Again,  although  the  limits  of 
objects  are  only  relatively  known  (as  we  have  seen  in 
treating  of  extension  and  impenetrability)  we  can  do  no 
less  than  admit  continuity  in  a  minimum  limit,  other- 
wise much  would  be  left  unsaid  in  the  explanation  of 
phenomena  and  other  material  changes. 

Although  almost  all  scientific  writers  actually  admit 
some  kind  of  atomic  hypothesis,  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  the  true  limitation  of  atomism  by  interpreting 
it  in  connection  with  the  principles  of  reasoning 
and  those  of  empirical  observation.  The  material 
necessary  to  form  a  true  atomic  hypothesis  is  dissemin- 
ated in  the  most  admired  disorder  ;  but  we  must  be  just, 
and  add  that,  thanks  to  modern  scientific  investigations, 
within  that  chaos  already  exist  all  the  materials  which 
must  contribute  to  the  formation  of  a  true  physiological 
theory.  We  aspire  to  reach  our  purpose  by  following  a 
logical  method  which  is  here  completely  proved,  seeking 
what  is  true  in  this  intricate  labyrinth,  and  setting  aside 
what  we  judge  has  been  falsely  asserted. 

Here  we  must  make  special  mention  of  two  great 
errors  maintained  by  most  physicists.  The  first  is  the 
contradiction  of  endowing  atoms  with  forces  as  the 
causes  of  their  activity,  and  at  the  same  time  admitting 
as  true  the  fact  of  inertia  of  matter.  We  have  explained 
how  this  is  opposed  to  the  direct  light  given  by  reflective 


-i 


speech,  for  matter  is  either  inert  or  has  causal  forces,  but 
both  things  cannot  be  at  the  same  time,  as  there  is  a 
contradiction  in  the  very  words.  This,  then,  is  an  error 
which  becomes  patent  simply  by  an  explanation  of  the 
terms.  The  truth  of  inertia  has  been  clearly  proved  by 
merely  interpreting  the  empirical  determination  of  the 
acts  of  matter ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  also  been 
demonstrated  that  all  the  physical  forces  are  effects  and 
not  causes  ;  that  they  are  the  result  of  the  mutual  action 
of  things  which  are  but  matter  in  movement ;  and  that 
they  have  no  real  existence  as  things,  being  purely 
mental  relations,  that  is,  comparative  determinations  of 
quantity. 

The  second  great  error  of  atomists  is  to  affirm  that 
all  matter  is  atomic.  We  will  show  in  the  next  chapter 
that  imponderable  ether  or  progene  cannot  be  atomic, 
being  distributed  in  parcels  of  very  variable  quantity — 
indiscriminate  or  indefinite  quantities  of  progene. 

With  this  brief  criticism,  and  the  data  of  the  fore- 
going chapters,  we  are  prepared  to  acquire  a  true  con- 
ception of  atoms,  so  proportioning  an  idea  in  harmony 
with  the  unity  of  all  physiological  science,  and  in  harmony 
also  with  a  true  metaphysical  theory ;  because  physio- 
logical theory  must  be  perfectly  subordinate  to  the 
high  concepts  of  the  immaterial,  in  the  psychical  as  much 
as  in  the  theological  sense.  This  is  the  only  true  method 
of  scientific  speculation  ;  to  follow  any  other  is  to  try 
vainly,  so  to  speak,  to  let  in  a  ray  of  light  at  the  expense 
of  mental  blindness,  the  result  being  an  illusory  clear- 
ness, as  the  eyes  of  the  mind  see  less  afterwards  by  the 
pretended  light  of  positivism  than  they  did  before. 


126 


///.  PONDERABLE  MATTER. 


26.   ATOMISTS. 


127 


§  26.  Disagreement  among  Atomists. 

We  cannot  assent  to  atomism  in  its  present  chaotic 
state,  as  authors  disagree  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
atomic  theory  in  the  different  departments  of  physio- 
logical science,  explaining  the  facts  of  every  one 
separately  without  connection  with  the  other.  But 
cosmos  being  a  harmonic  system,  a  similar  view  must 
be  taken  in  all  the  theories  of  hypotheses  whose  end  is 
the  same,  that  is,  the  explanation  of  the  mechanism  of 
nature.  There  can  be  no  intellectual  satisfaction  in  the 
atomic  hypotheses  given  up  to  the  present  day  by  writers 
on  Physics  and  Chemistry,  because  every  one  of  them, 
being  circumscribed  only  by  predilection  to  one  physio- 
logical branch,  graphically  interprets  the  empiric  deter- 
mination of  very  limited  generalizations  which  are  called 
laws,  and  which  have  no  other  advantage  than  the 
practical  value  of  helping  the  imagination  and  memory, 
though  without  giving  more  than  illusory  explanations 
of  the  generation  of  physico-chemical  changes,  that  is, 
of  Mechanism. 

The  atomic  hypothesis,  we  said,  has  been  described 
in  different  and  contrary  terms  according  to  the  end 
every  author  had  in  view.  Thus,  in  molar  or  ordinary 
mechanics,  atoms  are  considered  endowed  with  inertia, 
absolutely  passive,  without  taking  into  account  either 
gravitation  or  the  other  actions  of  bodies  which 
physicists  and  chemists  suppose  to  be  produced  by 
atomic  or  molecular  forces.  The  astronomer  sees  the 
atoms  as  simple  centres  of  attraction  without  pre- 
occupying himself  with  the  admission  of  imponderable 
means  ;  so  he  thinks  all  is  based  on  the  "  law  of  attract- 
ing gravitation  "  according  to  which  every  atom  or  group 


f 


of  atoms  is  supposed  to  attract  every  other  with  an  in- 
tensity which  varies  in  a  fixed  relation  according  to  masses 
and  distances.  The  chemist  settles  the  scientific  base  of 
chemistry  without  any  connection  with  the  theories  of  im- 
ponderable physics  ;  he  prescinds  the  idea  of  mechanical 
necessity  in  the  metamorphoses  of  bodies,  and  endows 
atoms  with  a  special  elective  force — affinity — without 
recognizing  the  influence  of  imponderable  matter  in 
anything,  explaining  the  corporeal  relations  by  an  atomic 
limitation  completely  baseless.  On  the  contrary,  the 
physicist,  properly  so  called,  that  is,  he  who  is  specially 
devoted  to  the  study  of  imponderable  changes,  recognizes 
imponderable  matter  as  a  necessary  principle,  though 
this  is  very  differently  comprehended  by  every  author, 
and  is  generally  endowed  with  absolute  elasticity, 
rotatory  movement,  etc. ;  he  admits  atoms  as  consti- 
tuents of  bodies,  either  endowing  them  with  limited 
extension  and  molecular  forces,  or  as  pure  dynamism 
maintains,  considering  them  as  imaginary  points  where 
the  resultants  of  universal  forces  act,  and  from  this  arises 
the  erroneous  conclusion  that  forces  are  the  only  exist- 
ences in  cosmos.  We  must  remark  also  that  the  limits 
given  to  atoms  by  physicists  who  admit  the  corpuscular 
hypothesis  are  entirely  different  from  those  determined 
by  chemists.  The  mineralogist  introduces,  besides,  new 
concepts  and  other  atomic  forces  principally  in  order  to 
explain  crystallization  ;  and  finally,  the  biologist  names 
one  force  more  of  a  specific  character  and  elective 
reaction — irritability — which  is  considered  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  chemical  afiinity,  though  this,  they  say,  is 
also  elective. 

The  hypotheses  of  atoms  have  a  long  history,  these 
having   been   invented   by   the   earliest   scientists,  and 


128 


///.  PONDERABLE  MATTER, 


26.  ATO MISTS. 


129 


having  already  reached  the  rank  of  a  doctrine  among  the 
ancient  Greeks.  But  the  elaboration  of  an  atomic 
hypothesis  chemically  explained  was  based  by  Dalton 
on  the  discovery  of  definite  and  multiple  proportions  ; 
he  proclaiming  that  the  fixed  ponderable  proportions  in 
which  bodies  are  combined  (equivalence)  depend  on 
the  relations  of  weight  among  the  constituent  atoms. 
Chemical  atomism  afterwards  received  an  apparent 
confirmation  by  Gay-Lussac's  discovery  relative  to 
the  definite  and  simple  proportions  of  the  components 
of  gaseous  combinations.  Dalton's  idea  has  been  applied 
to  this  fact  by  declaring  that  the  weights  of  the  volumes 
of  gases  which  are  combined  are  in  relation  with  atomic 
weights  ;  observing,  then,  that  a  simple  relation  exists 
between  the  so-called  atomic  weights  of  gases  and  their 
densities.  The  entire  existing  theory  of  chemistry  is 
founded  on  this  atomic  hypothesis  thus  elaborated.  Let 
us  ask,  then,  what  is  the  reason  of  Dalton's  assertion, 
which  is  deduced  from  the  idea  that  bodies  are  com- 
bined by  numeric  equality  of  atoms.  Having  selected 
hydrogen  as  the  standard  unity,  Dalton  has  said  that 
the  weight  of  the  atoms  of  the  other  bodies,  as  oxygen, 
for  instance,  is  in  the  same  proportion  to  the  weight  of 
the  atoms  of  hydrogen  as  are  the  weights  of  the  respec- 
tive bodies  in  their  combination  forming  water.  There 
is  no  reason  for  this  conclusion,  because  it  is  a  common 
occurrence  that  the  same  components  form  different 
combinations,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  suppose  that  in 
all  their  combinations  there  is  an  equal  number  of 
atoms  in  the  components  ;  if  the  elements  have  the 
capacity  to  combine  without  equality  in  the  number  of 
atoms,  why,  then,  should  we  suppose  such  equality,  even 
when  elements   do  not  form  more  than   a  compound  ? 


Accordingly,  the  atomic  hypothesis  as  conceived  by 
chemists  may,  perhaps,  be  of  great  descriptive  value,  but 
it  does  not  explain  anything  in  the  field  of  phenomenal 
genesis.  Because  masses  combine  in  proportions  of 
definite  weight  Dalton  and  his  followers  say  that  the 
atoms  must  also  be  proportionately  definite  in  weight ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  in  explaining  definite  proportions 
and  equivalence  of  components  by  the  averment  that 
the  weights  of  the  atoms  are  in  definite  proportions,  for 
this  does  not  give  any  additional  knowledge  ;  it  is  only 
a  confusing  play  of  words. 

What  has  been  said  is  enough  to  prove  the  lack  of 
unity  in,  and  the  falseness  of,  the  atomic  hypothesis  of 
authors,  considered  according  to  their  own  explanations. 
All  the  facts  of  nature  must  be  united  under  one  theory 
alone,  comparing  them  one  with  another  so  as  to  derive 
a  universal  generalization  ;  for  science  must  not  be 
satisfied  with  partial  opinions  which  only  lead  it  into  the 
existing  labyrinth  of  innumerable  conceptions  of  nature, 
and  which  result  in  a  physiological  theory  so  imperfect 
and  abortive.  A  true  theory  must  comprehend  the  whole 
cosmos  as  a  real  system  ;  it  is  therefore  necessary  for 
the  establishment  of  a  valid  and  complete  theory  to 
compare  the  facts  of  the  present  hypotheses  in  order  to 
demonstrate  the  fallacy  of  the  atomic  conceptions  of 
cosmos,  not  only  because  it  is  impossible  for  a  scientific 
understanding  to  entertain  the  idea  that  every  depart- 
ment of  physiological  theory  conceives  atoms  as  vehicles 
of  forces  and  with  different  characters,  but  also  because 
it  is  impossible  to  consider  atoms  as  the  material  unity 
or  reason  for  substantial  identity,  and  for  the  uniformity 
of  nature. 

This  work  is  not  the  proper  one  in  which  to  discuss 


I30 


///.   PONDERABLE  MATTER. 


27.   ATOMIC  PROPERTIES. 


131 


IX 


all  the  varying  conceptions  of  atomism,  which  are 
almost  as  numerous  as  imagination  can  conceive,  from 
the  nascent  ideas  of  the  Greek  atomists  up  to  intricacies 
like  those  developed  by  modern  mathematicians  who 
consider  atoms  either  as  mere  centres  of  force,  or  as 
annular  axes  in  revolution.  A  special  criticism  of  all 
the  different  hypothesis  of  atoms,  besides  being  un- 
necessary, would  be  interminable,  and  what  has  been 
said  is  enough  for  our  purpose,  which  is  to  prove  that 
the  existing  hypotheses  of  atoms  cannot  be  accepted  in 
a  true  physiological  theory. 

§  27.  Atomic  Properties  so  miscalled. 

Contemporary  physicists  in  general  consider  atoms 
as  corpuscles  endowed  with  absolute  solidity,  elasticity, 
and  movement.  This  concept  of  atoms  is  wholly 
erroneous,  because  if  they  possess  abstract  forces  they 
should  be  considered  as  causing  agents  instead  of  inert 
corpuscles,  and  such  an  idea  is  contrary  to  the  principle 
of  conservation  of  energy.  Thus  modern  works  on 
thermo-dynamics  proclaim  that  the  constituent  atoms 
of  bodies  are  in  constant  agitation  on  which  physicists 
say  the  degree  of  heat  depends  ;  but  this  cannot  be 
true,  as  it  is  contradictory  to  the  recognized  fundamental 
principle  of  mechanism,  for  such  an  affirmation  denies 
the  fact  of  inertia  of  matter.  To  the  asserted  absolute 
solidity  (hardness)  of  atoms  we  oppose  the  same  argu- 
ments that  we  have  used  against  the  idea  of  impene- 
trability considered  as  a  primordial  and  absolute 
property  of  matter. 

Elasticity,  implying  movements  of  parts,  cannot  be 
comprehended  as  an  attribute  of  simple  atoms.     In  case 


of  a  collision  between  bodies  there  is^  in  fact,  a  loss  of 
visible  movement,  which  is  said  to  be  converted  into  an 
invisible  agitation  of  the  constituent  particles  of  the 
bodies  in  collision  ;  but,  when  simple  atoms  collide,  such 
a  conversion  cannot  occur,  because  they  are  not  formed 
of  parts  in  which  the  movement  or  work  could  be 
divided.  Nevertheless,  most  authors  in  order  to  account 
for  the  reparation  of  force  lost  in  mechanism,  i.e.  for 
conservation  of  energy  in  cosmos,  suppose  atoms  in 
perfect  movement  and  endowed  with  perfect  elasticity 
as  properties  inherent  in  their  own  essence  ;  for,  other- 
wise, they  say,  atoms  will  lose  part  or  the  totality  of 
movement  in  every  collision.  According  to  these 
erroneous  ideas  most  contemporary  authors  admit  the 
hypothesis  they  call  kinetic,  in  which  they  maintain 
that  the  smallest  particles  of  ponderable  matter,  called 
atoms,  have  weight  in  themselves  and  are  in  perpetual 
agitation,  this  being,  they  add,  the  cause  of  heat.  As 
an  inevitable  consequence,  they  have  been  obliged  to 
recognize  for  this  purpose  a  perfect  elasticity  in  atoms, 
and  they  themselves  affirm  that,  if  elasticity  were  not 
admitted,  the  kinetic  hypothesis  would  be  a  contradic- 
tion to  the  laws  of  conservation  of  energy.  Here  we 
must  take  care  not  to  confound  the  word  kinetic  in  the 
sense  in  which  it  is  here  used  with  its  etymological 
signification,  as  in  this  it  is  applicable  to  all  energy,  for 
latent  as  well  as  manifested  energy  supposes  movements 
both  of  ponderable  and  imponderable  matter.  In- 
genious hypotheses  have  been  invented  to  explain  the 
supposed  elasticity  of  atoms,  bnt  all  serve  only  to  com- 
plicate the  question,  as  they  cannot  escape  falling  into 
contradiction  between  the  enunciation  of  inertia  and 
conservation  of  energy  on  the  one  hand  and  the  belief 


w 


132 


///.    PONDERABLE  MATTER. 


27.   ATOMIC  PROPERTIES. 


133 


in  the  perpetual  movement  of  gravitating  atoms  on  the 
other,  the  result  being  that  atoms  which,  like  masses, 
are    really    inert,   are    conceived    by   them    as    things 
endowed    with    proper   activity.      Thus,   some   authors 
have   imagined   that  atoms  are  whirlpools   containing 
an    invariable    quantity  of  imponderable   fluid,  having 
also  permanently  a  certain  and  inherent  rotatory  move- 
ment of  their  own,  and   that,  in  consequence  of  such 
movement,  when  atoms  collide  they  repel  each  other  as 
perfectly   elastic   bodies   would  ;    but  we    must  remark 
that  perfectly  elastic  bodies  do  not  exist  in  reality,  and 
therefore   that    even    this    standard    of    comparison    is 
imaginary.     This  hypothesis,  besides  affirming  a   sup- 
position contrary  to  the  law  of  inertia,  cannot  explain 
any  sensible  difiference  in  movement,  and  would  there- 
fore oblige  us  to  admit  the  conclusion  that  there  are  no 
phenomenal  changes  in  nature,  so  denying  precisely  the 
contrary  of  the  facts  these  same  authors  try  to  interpret 
— changes  of  propagation  of  movement  in  accordance 
with  the  principle  of  conservation. 

Some    physicists,    though    admitting    the    inherent 
rotation  of  atoms,  consider  them  not  as  ethereal  fluid 
in    movement,  but   as   real  corpuscles,   supposing  that 
when   atoms  collide   they  keep    the  same   quantity  of 
movement  in  the  sum  of  their  rotation  and  translation, 
there    being   then    only  a    conversion    in    the   form    of 
movement  but  without  any  loss,  thus  strangely  affirming 
that  atoms  have  always  the  same  power.     All  experi- 
ence demonstrates  the  contrary,  as  even  when  bodies 
possessed  of  the  greatest  elasticity  (which  is  never  per- 
fect) collide  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  most 
complete  repulsion  possible  they  lose  at  least  a  third 
of  their   movement;    and   this   is  without  taking  into 


consideration  the  cases  in  which  there  is  almost  a  com- 
plete loss  of  rotatory  as  well  as  of  translatory  movement. 
Hence  we  see  that  to  attribute  rotation  to  atoms  in 
order  to  endow  them  with  inherent  and  perfect  elasticity 
does  not  explain  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intended, 
that  is,  the  reparation  of  the  loss  of  living  force  in 
mechanism,  without  contradicting  the  principle  of  con- 
servation of  energy. 

Ponderable  matter  must  be  truly  considered  of 
atomic  constitution,  composed  of  discrete  particles,  that 
is  to  say,  of  corpuscles  which  are  separated  either  in 
part  or  totally  by  imponderable  matter  or  progene, 
the  expansion  of  a  body  being  the  result  of  the  augmen- 
tation of  the  intervals  relatively  occupied  by  progene, 
and  its  contraction  the  result  of  their  diminution. 
Nevertheless,  such  particles  cannot  be  defined  in  their 
minimum  limits,  any  more  than  in  any  other  property, 
by  chemical  laws  or  by  any  other  means.  The  mole- 
cules which  compose  the  different  chemical  elements 
have  a  determined  specific  weight  or  equivalence  of 
combination  in  harmony  with  the  definite  constitution 
of  the  bodies  combined,  that  is  to  say,  with  the  definite 
and  multiple  proportions  of  the  components  in  com- 
bination. From  these  relations  and  laws  chemists 
especially  pretend  to  determine  atomic  limits  and 
properties,  which  is  an  impossibility. 

The  indestructibility  of  ponderable  matter  is  a  truth 
attested  by  the  balance,  which  shows  us  that  all  the 
changes  to  which  bodies  are  submitted  are  simply 
changes  of  form,  the  relation  of  mass  or  quantity  of 
matter  always  remaining  invariable.  But,  at  the  same 
time,  we  must  keep  in  mind  that  weight,  and  therefore 
mass,  is  not  an  absolute  property,  but  a  relation  deter- 


'34 


///.   PONDERABLE  MATTER. 


28.  ERRONEOUS  UNITY  OF  ATOMISM. 


135 


mined  by  comparison,  and  which,  as  the  pendulum 
demonstrates,  varies  with  the  position  of  the  body  with 
reference  to  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  earth.  It  is 
necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  atomic  weights  of 
Dalton  simply  represent  the  relations  in  weight  accord- 
ing to  which  bodies  are  combined,  the  arithmetical  ratio 
of  the  numbers  being  ordinarily  proportional  or  equiva- 
lent ;  but  with  this  no  atomic  limits  are  determined. 

Many  chemists  have  also  tried  to  determine  the 
volume  of  atoms,  deducing  it  from  atomic  weights, 
dividing  the  quantities  which  express  the  atomic  weights 
of  every  chemical  element  by  their  densities,  i.e.  by  the 
weights  of  the  unity  of  volume,  and,  in  this  manner, 
they  believe  they  have  obtained  the  volume  of  atoms. 
But  if  we  admit  that  ponderable  matter  is  discrete,  that 
is  to  say,  that  atoms  are  separated  by  greater  or  less 
space,  such  quantities  represent  the  relations  of  atomic 
parcels,  comprehending  in  these  parcels  not  only  the 
atoms,  but  half  of  the  space  which  separates  them  from 
one  another.  We  must  not  forget,  then,  that  the  unities 
of  volume  that  we  call  atomic  parcels  are  not  com- 
pletely occupied  by  ponderable  matter  alone,  they  also 
contain  imponderable  matter  or  progene.  We  must 
elucidate  in  a  similar  manner  what  are  called  the 
molecular  volumes  of  a  combination,  and  which  it  will 
be  better  to  name  molecular  parcels.  These  are  deter- 
mined by  the  sum  of  atomic  volume  which  we  have 
called  atomic  parcels.  If  the  atomic  and  molecular 
parcels  contain  not  only  ponderable  corpuscles  but  also 
imponderable  matter  in  movement,  the  energy  of  this 
matter  must  then  be  a  factor  of  chemical  metamorphosis, 
although,  until  now,  it  has  never  been  determined. 
Nevertheless  we   can  already  make   some   conjectures 


\ 


\ 


from  the  progressive  discoveries  of  thermo-chemistry,  as 
we  have  shown  in  our  "  Theory  of  Physics." 

In  all  ways  the  Daltonian  determination  of  atomic 
weight  by  supposing  equality  in  the  number  of  atoms 
when  elements  are  combined  lacks  favourable  proof, 
because  what  is  right  to  affirm  from  the  fact  of  the 
multiple  proportion  is  that  the  numbers  which  represent 
the  quantity  of  atoms  in  an  element  common  to  different 
compounds  are  usually  in  arithmetical  relation,  that  is, 
I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.  ;  but  there  is  no  determining  from  this 
what  must  be  the  precise  number  of  atoms  which  can 
be  put  for  such  a  relation  in  chemical  combinations, 
and  consequently  the  so-called  atomic  weights,  we 
repeat,  represent  a  relation  in  the  equivalence  of  bodies 
in  combination,  and  nothing  else. 

§  28.  Unity  erroneously  derived  from  Atomism. 

Authors  differ  in  opinion  on  the  concept  of  atomic 
identity.  Many  say  that  the  atoms  of  bodies,  considered 
as  different  elements  in  Chemistry,  cannot  be  of  the  same 
nature,  while  others  affirm  that  all  must  be  constituted 
of  the  same  primordial  matter.  It  is  necessary  to  under- 
stand what  they  desire  to  express  by  the  phrase  "  matters 
of  different  nature,"  but  remembering  the  signification  of 
the  words  qualitative  nature  and  essence  of  matter,  we 
obtain  the  true  concept  of  qualitative  identity  of  atoms 
and  of  all  matter.  Nevertheless,  we  must  not  fall  into 
the  error  of  considering  the  atom  as  the  cause  of  unity 

in  the  universe. 

Here  it  is  well  to  remark   the   difference   between 

chemical    elements    and    simple    bodies.      A    chemical 

^element  is   the   minimum   mass   of  homogeneous   con- 


^1 


136 


///.   PONDERABLE  MATTER, 


28.   ERRONEOUS   UNITY  OF  ATOMISM. 


137 


stitution,  which  is  chemically  determined  by  the  relative 
weight  of  combination ;  while  a  simple  body,  though 
chemically  homogeneous,  may  or  may  not  correspond 
in  its  mass  to  its  chemical  equivalent.  Neverthe- 
less, when  there  is  no  such  equivalence  the  relation 
is  multifold.  Chemical  elements  are  all  different  from 
one  another  (in  quantity  of  course),  while  the  term 
simple  bodies  makes  no  reference  to  quantitative  rela- 
tions which  may  or  may  not  be  equal.  Hence,  the 
different  chemical  elements  are  not  things  without 
mutual  relations ;  on  the  contrary,  they  form  a  series 
whose  terms  are  in  regular  gradation  in  conformity  with 
some  law  or  quantitative  relation  plainly  appreciable 
though  not  yet  exactly  formulated.  One  relation  yet 
exists  which  is  common,  not  only  to  all  chemical  ele- 
ments, but  also  to  all  bodies  whatever  their  quantity 
may  be ;  this  is  the  equality  of  densities  of  all  ponder- 
able matter  when  we  take  progene  (imponderable  ether) 
as  a  standard,  which  fact  is  proved  by  the  falling  of  all 
bodies  with  the  same  velocity  within  a  tube  from  which 
the  air  has  been  exhausted.  These  facts,  united  to  the 
consideration  of  simplicity  in  the  idea,  a  thing  which  is 
so  attractive  to  the  mind,  are  at  least  good  reasons, 
though  not  complete  proofs  in  favour  of  the  admission 
of  but  one  primordial  matter ;  and  though  up  to  this 
time  experience  does  not  permit  us  to  expect  the 
practical  possibility  of  a  metamorphosis  of  all  simple 
bodies  into  one  alone,  we  have  settled  in  the  introduc- 
tion that  all  objective  differences,  that  is,  all  the  actions 
which  are  known  by  propagation  through  the  senses, 
are  quantitative,  the  differences  of  quality  arising  in  the 
mind  itself  through  the  various  reactions  provoked  by 
sensation.     This  is  the  highest  argument  and  sufficient 


proof  in  favour  of  the  identity  of  matter,  for  how  is  it 
possible  to  recognize  ponderable  matter  of  different 
qualities,  if  such  matter  cannot  be  propagated  through 
the  nervous  system  in  order  to  be  perceived  by  the 
mind  ?  It  is  not  possible,  for  what  the  mind  receives 
from  the  object  is  in  reality  either  the  propagation  of 
movement  or  the  transmission  of  progene,  and  therefore 
objective  differences  can  be  quantitative  alone. 

Physiological  Theory  starts  from  the  facts  of  ex- 
perience or  extrinsic  observation  ;  the  mind  groups 
such  facts  and  brings  them  under  laws  of  generalization 
in  accordance  with  their  connections,  and  these  laws 
express  quantitative  correlations  which  must  be  mathe- 
matically expressed  in  order  to  be  scientifically  exact. 
Hence,  though  every  simple  body  were  constituted  of 
atoms  of  different  qualities,  the  result  would  be  the 
same  for  our  understanding  as  if  they  were  all  consti- 
tuted of  atoms  of  the  same  quality,  for,  we  repeat,  no 
other  differences  but  the  quantitative  can  be  known  by 
the  data  of  the  senses,  that  is,  physiologically. 

Most  authors  say  that  the  atom  is  a  permanent 
element  which  continues  in  bodies,  though  they  are 
constantly  passing  through  many  different  states  and 
conditions,  and  that  this  permits  them  to  affirm  that  a 
body  is  the  same  through  all  its  changes  ;  but  we  have 
seen  that  the  so-called  properties  of  matter,  and  there- 
fore those  of  constituting  atoms,  are  relative,  depending 
on  the  mutual  action  between  the  objects  of  nature  and 
the  mind  ;  this  interaction  varies  with  many  circum- 
stances, principally  with  that  of  relative  position  among 
atoms  when  there  are  changes  between  the  proportions 
of  centripetal  energy  (gravitation)  and  centrifugal  (heat). 
Thus  some  bodies,  though  chemically  equal,  may  be  in 


tBiaiilMBLJffl1ii'ffiliiriir<iWfc**'*-^*iiltilihinift 


Ulld 


138 


///.   PONDERABLE  MATTER, 


28.   ERRONEOUS  UNITY  OF  ATOMISM. 


139 


Other  respects  different,  which  can  be  explained  only  by 
the  collocation  of  their  constituent,  invisible  corpuscles, 
according  to  the  energy  of  the  imponderable  matter 
acting  in  contact  with  such  corpuscles. 

By  inferring  the  ultimate  abstractions  of  the  object, 
we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  two  universal 
attributions — substance  and  activity — are  of  the  same 
nature  throughout  all  cosmos  ;  and  for  this  same  reason, 
although  the  reduction  of  all  chemical  elements  to 
one  alone  is  practically  impossible,  to  assimilate  all 
to  the  same  substance  is  a  theoretical  necessity;  because 
the  fact  that  all  the  differences  among  objects  are 
quantitative,  truly  implies  the  reason  of  substantial 
identity  among  all  bodies  and  among  all  their  con- 
stituent parts,  whether  they  are  ponderable  (atomic 
matter)  or  imponderable  (progenic  matter).  We  have 
thus  proclaimed  the  similarity  of  essence  or  qualitative 
nature  in  all  objects,  and  in  consonance  with  this  idea 
it  seems  we  have  answered  the  practical  question  which 
has  tormented  thinkers  from  the  earliest  age  of  science : 
this  is,  the  problem  of  the  possibility  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  matter  into  a  single  element,  the  resolution  of 
which  was  vainly  tried  by  alchemists.  The  results  of 
irreflexive  experience  in  chemical  analysis  are  practi- 
cally contrary  to  this  idea  of  analogy  in  the  quality  of 
bodies,  because  there  are  more  than  sixty  different  kinds 
of  elements  which  cannot  be  resolved  into  one  another, 
and  for  this  reason  they  are  considered  as  simple  bodies 
within  the  limits  of  chemical  analysis.  This  proof  is 
not  sufficient  reason  to  consider  them  as  indivisible  or 
irresoluble  in  mental  speculations,  and  there  are  many 
facts  besides  which  induce  us  to  see  fundamental  con- 
nections among  the  simple  bodies.     Among  other  facts, 


/ 


we  must  keep  in  mind  that  the  slightest  change  in  the 
numeric  relations  of  elements  produces  the  greatest 
changes  in  our  qualitative  perceptions.  It  is  possible 
then  to  conceive  the  chemical  species  obtained  by  actual 
analysis  as  elemental  in  a  series  of  varieties  of  a  single 
substance,  which  differ  only  in  their  relation  or  atomic 
and  progenic  dynamism ;  but  this  possibility  of  de- 
scriptive analogy  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
monomania  of  evolutionism,  which  does  not  accept 
anything  as  already  made  or  created  in  such  a  state, 
because  even  if  the  idea  of  material  equality  could  some 
day  become  a  practical  fact,  this  would  not  advance 
the  speculative  assertions  of  transformism  ;  for  the  true 
unity  of  the  system  consists  in  the  unity  of  principle 
and  plan  alone,  and  not  in  similarity  of  material — sub- 
stance and  activity.  Neither  must  we  confound  the 
physiological  phrase  of  material  similarity  with  the 
ontological  phrase  of  common  substance,  because  this 
is  only  an  abstraction  born  from  irreflexive  experience 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  many  different  things  can  be 
made  of  the  same  material. 

We  must  conclude  this  article  by  settling  the  fact 
that  the  atom  is  no  more  than  a  concept  taken  from 
quantitative  relations,  the  atomic  idea  representing  the 
last  generalization  of  ponderable  matter;  but  atom 
cannot  be  the  concept  of  material  unity,  because,  besides 
the  foregoing  reasons,  imponderable  matter  is  not  atomic, 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter ;  and  the  progenic 
parcels,  as  well  as  the  atoms,  are  real  parts  of  the  whole 
cosmos,  and  they  must  be  considered,  not  as  passive 
substratum,  but  as  things  in  activity. 


140 


///.   PONDERABLE  MATTER. 


29.   RECAPITULATION. 


141 


§  29.  Recapitulation  of  the  Concept  of  Atoms. 

Physicists,  by  their  opinions  on  the  concept  of 
matter,  are  generally  divided  into  two  parties,  both 
standing  on  a  false  basis — that  of  realizing  an  abstrac- 
tion :  one  is  the  corpuscular  school,  and  the  other  the 
dynamic.  The  first  in  particular  occupies  our  attention, 
for  it  is  generally  admitted  by  most  authors,  the  second 
being  set  outside  the  pale  of  consideration,  for  it  is 
absolutely  groundless. 

Atomism  conceives  all  matter  as  formed  of  passive 
diminutive  corpuscles  endowed  only  with  extension — 
atoms,  or  what  is  the  same,  a  pure  mass  to  which  forces 
are  aggregated,  and  so  it  pretends  to  explain  the 
identity  of  matter,  considering  the  atom  as  the  common 
element  and  principle  of  unity.  Only  by  verbal  specu- 
lation can  we  arrive  at  the  supposition  that  such 
material  entity  is  simple  or  elemental,  without  distinction 
of  quality  of  any  kind,  equal  or  identical  in  all  things, 
but  we  must  not  admit  that  the  atom  is  an  agent  or 
unity  in  itself.  According  to  atomism,  everything  should 
be  an  aggregate  of  such  atomic  entities — that  is,  a 
particularization  by  means  of  special  marks,  owing  only 
to  differences  of  numeric  quantity  and  geometric  forms 
of  atomic  aggroupation.  If  they  consider  the  atom  as 
simple,  elemental,  and  existing  in  and  by  itself,  they 
recognize  it  as  a  universal  being,  extending  this  supposi- 
tion to  all  objective  things,  which,  according  to  their 
view,  are  only  formed  by  collections  of  atoms. 

We  must  explain  that  which  appears  to  be  by  that 
which  really  is,  but  the  concept  of  atomism  does  not 
follow  such  a  maxim  ;  besides,  it  is  contrary  to  the 
exigencies  of  science,  and  is  so  deficient  that  we  cannot 


derive  from  it  the  explanation  of  any  cosmic  or  physio- 
logical    manifestation.        Furthermore,    it    is     notably 
strange  that  even  the  most  eminent  physicists  agree  in 
maintaining  that  the  weight  of  atoms,  though  unknown 
in  absolute,  must  be  primordial,  inherent  or  persistent 
under  all  conditions  of  position  and  combination  ;  and 
chemists  wholly  deduce  their  present  atomic  hypothesis 
from  such  an  erroneous  assertion.     Since  the  time  of 
Dalton  the  hypothesis  of  chemical  atoms  has  been  con- 
sidered as  a  true  interpretation  of  the  laws  of  definite 
and  multiple  proportions,   it  being    supposed  that   the 
relations  in  weight  according  to  which  the  bodies  are 
combined  represent  the  weight  of  the  most  diminutive 
particles  called  atoms.     The  system  of  atomic  weights 
as  adopted  at  present  is  based  on  the  discovery  of  the 
law  of  volumes  (Gay-Lussac),  and  most  chemists  add 
that   the    cause   of    the   definite   proportions  in  which 
bodies    are   combined  when    they  form  different  com- 
pounds, is  that  all  the  atoms  corresponding  to  the  same 
species  of  elemental  matter  are  equal  and  indivisible. 
These  may  be  necessary  conditions,  but  not  the  cause  of 
such  a  law.     Chemists  also  maintain  that  when  different 
molecules  move  to  form  a  combination,  it  is  because  they 
are  mutually  attracted— because  they  have  affinity  ;  but 
this  is  not  to  interpret  a  phenomenon,  it  is  simply  to  say 
a  combination  occurs  **  because.  .  .  ."    In  the  literal  sense 
affinity  is  a    selective  causing  force,  and  at  the  same 
time   universally   engendered  ;    that  is  to  say,  a  force 
inherent  to  matter   considered  sometimes  as  endowed 
with  sympathetic  attraction,  and   at  others  with  anti- 
pathetic  repulsion.      This    is    a    contradiction   to   the 
principle   of  conservation  of  energy   and  to   the  laws 
based  on  physiological  facts.     Such  an  impossible  notion 


142 


///.  PONDERABLE  MATTER. 


about  abstract  forces  in  mechanism  must  be  superseded 
by  the  theory  of  direct  impulse  of  matter  whose  variable 
parcels  (progene)  and  indivisible  particles  (atoms)  are 
in  intermotion. 

We  must  consider  atoms  as  corpuscular  elements 
having  some  invariable  form,  but  with  relative  penetra- 
bility in  their  corresponding  porocular  spaces,  which  are 
occupied  in  part  by  the  progenic  parcels.  Thus  con- 
ceiving the  atom,  we  can  perfectly  explain  the  phenomena 
presented  in  bodies — that  is,  the  physical  and  chemical 
changes,  or,  better  to  say,  physiological  changes — but 
thus  we  do  not  resolve  in  any  manner  the  problem  of 
Genesis  or  that  of  Primordial  Causality. 

We  must  not  think  with  the  atomist  that  the 
properties  of  all  bodies  result  from  the  accumulation  of 
atoms  ;  these  are  not  absolute  unities,  they  are  only 
relative ;  we  cannot  discover  in  them  more  than  a 
secondary  activity,  and  that  is  movement,  which  in 
abstract  cannot  be  more  than  an  idea  of  quantitative 
distinctions  or  relations,  as  the  qualitative  distinctions 
or  attributions  of  objects  exist  only  in  the  mind  of  the 
spectator  through  the  differences  among  the  sensations 
there  formed.  Again,  we  must  not  consider  atoms  as 
in  mutual  absolute  independence,  but  as  dependent  and 
subordinate  particles  in  which  there  is  no  proper  cause 
to  produce  in  the  natural  order  the  combinations  for 
the  collocation  of  matter  in  the  acts  of  vital  generation. 
The  most  primordial  effects  of  the  order  in  the  material 
system  we  shall  find  only  in  organic  existence  or 
vitality. 

If  the  sole  mode  of  change  in  atoms  is  movement, 
in  this  must  consist  the  difference  among  the  so-called 
atomic  properties.      Therefore,   to  determine  the  pro- 


29.  RECAPITULATION. 


143 


perties  and  forms  of  bodies  we  must  directly  refer,  not 
to  similar  properties  and  forms  of  atoms,  but  to  their 
dynamic  relations  with  progene  as  well  as  among  them- 
selves, including  here  also  "  solidity,"  and,  of  course, 
extension  and  penetrability,  which  must  undoubtedly 
be  products  or  dynamic  results,  and  not  immutable 
attributes.  Atoms  cannot  be  considered  as  endowed 
with  absolute  or  immutable  extension,  because  in 
separating  from  one  another,  in  some  measure  as  an 
effect  of  the  changes  in  progenic  oscillation,  they  acquire 
the  control  of  more  or  less  space,  and  from  this  arise 
thermic  variations  in  volume.  Neither  can  atoms  move 
from  their  places  without  the  interference  of  some  forcing 
power  ;  this  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  the  qualities 
of  bodies  which  we  may  comprehend  under  the  term 
"  materiality  "  depend  as  proximate  effects  on  the  mutual 
action  of  ponderable  and  imponderable  elements,  and 
not  on  properties  inherent  to  atoms.  Furthermore, 
atoms  could,  perhaps,  statically,  completely  fill  space, 
but  being  then  in  a  passive  state  they  could  not  repre- 
sent or  reveal  anything  to  our  perception  ;  in  order  to 
produce  sensations  they  must  be  in  activity  or  move- 
ment— that  is,  dynamically — in  which  state  it  is  im- 
possible to  imagine  the  absolute  fulness  of  space.  In 
fine,  in  the  phenomenal  world  or  manifested  reality, 
even  extension  and  penetrability  (in  atomic  parcels  as 
much  as  in  bodies)  are  variable  as  a  result  of  the  changes 
of  movement,  which  vary  in  quantity  or  intensity  accord- 
ing to  the  energy,  not  of  one  part,  particle,  or  parcel 
alone,  but  in  accordance  with  the  interaction  of  all  those 
which  act  in  contact.  The  properties  of  atoms,  then, 
depend  proximately  on  their  interaction  with  progene, 
and  the  objective  primordial  effects  are  those  of  vitality; 


14^ 


HI,  PONDERABLE  MATTER. 


the  generation  of  movement  in  the  form  of  manifested 
changes  is  not  an  atomic  property  ;  it  is  the  primordial 
effect  of  the  Supernatural  Cause,  which,  in  order  to 
produce  all  the  phenomena  of  cosmos,  acts  directly 
upon  living  matter  alone. 


30.   REAL  EXISTENCE   OF  FROGENE, 


145 


CHAPTER   IV. 


1 


IMPONDERABLE   MATTER  :   HYPOTHESIS  OF  PROGENE— 

ETHER   OF   THE   PHYSICISTS. 

§  30.  Real  existence  of  progene— §  31.  Nature  of  progene— §  32.  Dis- 
tribution of  progene— §  33  Forms  of  progenia  motion— §  34.  Progenia 
potence— §  35.  Progenia  phenomena— §  36.  Recapitulation  of  the 
concept  of  progene. 

§  30.  Real  Existence  of  Progene. 

We  give  the  r\2.m^  progene  to  the  imponderable  fluid 
or  metafluid  which  physicists  call  ether.  The  change  of 
denomination  is  made  on  account  of  greater  etymological 
propriety  in  the  use  of  the  word  progene  (first  engen- 
dered), because  the  progenic  potence  which  moves 
ponderable  particles  to  form  organic  matter  is  the  Jirst 
change  engendered  in  nature,  and  because  with  this  new 
name  we  avoid  on  the  one  hand  the  false  concepts 
attributed  by  physicists  to  imponderable  ether,  and  on 
the  other,  the  equivocal  ideas  of  the  old  name  which  not 
only  represents  ponderable  bodies  of  definite  composition 
in  Chemistry,  but  also  is  commonly  applied  to  immaterial 
things. 

Some  authors  have  denied  the  existence  of  impon- 
derable matter,  presuming  that  they  could  found  a 
physiological  theory  of  all   the  changes  of  nature   by 


146 


IV.  FRO  GENE. 


admitting  ponderable  matter  alone.  For  this  purpose 
they  were  obliged  either  to  endow  matter  with  incon- 
ceivable properties,  or  to  give  a  real  and  exclusive 
existence  to  the  abstract  idea  of  force.  Those  who 
admit  in  cosmos  only  ponderable  or  atomic  matter,  fall 
into  a  scientific  idolatry  in  which  the  forces  are  con- 
sidered as  causal  instead  of  being  merely  mechanical 
resultant,  but  we  have  already  dethroned  all  the  false 
gods  of  the  scientific  Olympia  which  were  born  of  the 
absurd  ontological  idea  of  admission  of  properties  as 
absolute  conditions  of  matter  and  of  forces  as  real 
existences  combined  with  some  passive  substratum. 
In  confirmation  of  what  has  been  said  in  opposition  to 
such  ontological  ideas  we  will  demonstrate  in  Part  II. 
that  it  is  an  error  to  consider  the  abstract  idea  of 
gravitation  as  the  fundamental  cause  of  phenomena  ; 
we  will  see  that  this  force  is  the  resultant  of  the  inter- 
action of  progene  with  corpuscular  matter  and  not  a 
causal  force. 

We  must  now  remove  the  irreflexive  doubts  which 
exist  respecting  the  admission  of  progene  because  this 
has  not  the  sanction  of  the  sense  of  touch  which  gives 
more  apparent  certainty  for  the  admission  of  objects. 
It  is  in  truth  a  false  assertion  of  irreflexive  minds  that 
the  complete  contents  of  the  notion  of  matter  arc 
obtained  directly  by  means  of  the  perceptions  of  the 
senses,  or  what  is  the  same,  that  we  do  not  know  any- 
thing as  to  matter  apart  from  extrinsic  ideas,  or  ideas 
directly  presented  by  sensation  ;  it  is  thus  imagined 
by  many  writers  that  all  science  of  matter  is  directly 
acquired  by  immediate  experience,  adding  to  this  that 
the  same  writers  consider  such  knowledge  as  the  sole 
one,  indisputable   in    its    evidence,  and    deny  certainty 


30.   REAL  EXISTENCE   OF  FROGENE. 


147 


in  the  true  proof  of  the  ideas  which  are  not  immediately 
presented  to  the  senses.  But  although  the  phenomenal 
changes,  that  is,  those  manifested  to  the  senses,  are 
what  reveal  to  us  material  activity,  they  do  not  compose 
the  whole  of  such  activity,  because  this  is  found  also  in 
a  potential,  virtual,  or  latent  state,  as  is  proved  by  the 
actions  of  expenditure  or  forces  of  position  which 
oblige  us  to  recognize  the  existence  of  a  potential  or 
non-manifested  energy.  Again,  we  have  already  said 
(in  the  psychological  data)  that  sensation  is  only  the 
immediate  idea  formed  by  the  mind  in  its  capacity  of 
feeling,  by  propagating  through  the  nerves  the  inter- 
action between  matter  and  the  senses,  and  that  the 
theory  of  knowledge  also  authorizes  us  to  admit  and 
recognize  some  things  in  nature  though  they  are  beyond 
the  direct  reach  of  our  senses.  Thus,  for  instance,  there 
are  tenuous  gases  which  escape  our  direct  observation  ; 
they  can  be  neither  touched  nor  seen,  yet  they  are 
recognized  by  their  effects  in  chemical  interaction  with 
other  bodies ;  and  the  changes  which  then  take  place, 
and  not  the  bodies  themselves,  are  those  which  are 
evident  to  the  senses.  Thus,  also,  there  are  infra-red 
and  ultra-violet  rays  of  light,  better  said  of  progene, 
which  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  eye  ;  there  are  vibra- 
tions from  sonorous  instruments  which,  being  either 
defective  or  excessive,  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  ear ; 
etc.,  etc. 

Though  sensation  is  the  immediate  effect  of  the 
capacity  of  our  mind  to  refer  our  knowledge  of  matter 
to  the  senses,  and  though  it  provokes  mental  reaction 
it  may  be  a  deceitful  illusion  produced  by  want  of 
reflexion.  Sensations  are  the  data  for  reflection,  and 
the   witnesses    for   our   reason    in    order   to   assent   to 


I4S 


JV,  PROGENE. 


30.   REAL  EXISTENCE  OF  PROGENE. 


149 


scientific  judgments  and  to  derive  from  these  the  con- 
clusions which  form  the  physiological  theory,  that  is,  all 
the  abstract  knowledge  of  nature  together. 

We  have  repeatedly  said  that  physiological  know- 
ledge comprehends  not  only  phenomena,  but  also  the 
potential  changes  which  reason  can  discover  after  their 
transference  into  manifested  changes  ;  and  that  physio- 
logical problems  cannot  be  resolved  by  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  senses  but  by  reason.  The  theory  of  nature 
ivS  of  a  rational  solution,  therefore  it  is  speculative  and 
not  a  fact  of  irreflexive  observation  ;  the  difference 
between  physical  and  metaphysical  theories  is  that  in 
the  latter  the  fundamental  data  are  those  of  intrinsic 
intuition  or  proper  consciousness  (abstraction  being 
made  of  experimental  incitants),  which  is  contrary  to 
that  occurring  in  the  physiological  or  physical,  whose 
base  is  only  a  mental  reference  to  the  incitants  ex- 
perienced, abstraction  being  made  of  the  states  of 
consciousness  which  provoked  them.  We  will  conclude 
with  this  statement,  that  material  as  well  as  immaterial 
knowledge  is  always  reflexive  or  rational,  and  not  in 
any  manner  irreflexive  or  sensual. 

Those  who  are  opposed  to  the  idea  of  the  existence 
of  imponderable  matter  make  use  of  the  argument  that 
it  is  not  an  object  of  sensation.  This  is  not  true,  but 
even  if  it  were  it  would  not  be  a  sufficient  argument  to 
deny  its  existence,  according  to  the  summary  idea  which 
we  have  given  relative  to  the  acquisition  of  material 
knowledge.  But  is  there  any  one  so  obstinate  that,  from 
a  spirit  of  contradiction  to  all  that  is  rational,  he  dares 
to  deny  that  he  sees  light?  Do  not  all  feel  also  the 
rays  of  light  when  they  estimate  their  heat?  An 
ellipsis  of  language   has  conduced   to  an   error  of  re- 


ference, taking  the  extreme  instead  of  the  medium, 
because,  strictly  speaking,  we  do  not  see  nor  touch  the 
sun  itself,  what  we  feel  is  the  action  which  is  propagated 
to  us  determining  the  impression  of  the  senses,  and 
such  a  propagation  cannot  be  nothing,  it  must  be  some- 
thing capable  of  provoking  sensation,  i.e.  matter  of  some 
kind.  Granting  this,  and  knowing  also  that  ponderable 
matter  encircles  the  earth  only  to  the  extent  of  about  sixty 
miles,  there  yet  remaining  many,  many  miles  between 
the  earth's  atmosphere  and  the  sun,  we  must  necessarily 
admit  some  material  thing  there  to  propagate  the 
physiological  action  of  solar  radiation,  or  in  better 
words,  solar  propagation.  Furthermore,  rational  experi- 
ence shows  us  the  analogy  between  many  changes  that 
happen  within  the  limits  of  our  planet  and  those  of 
solar  propagation,  proving  at  the  same  time  the  im- 
possibility of  the  propagation  of  such  changes  through 
ponderable  matter ;  and  from  this  we  conclude  that 
metafluid  or  imponderable  matter  is  not  only  matter 
which  exists  in  the  greater  part  of  interstellar  space,  but 
also  a  constituent  of  terrestrial  objects.  All  molecular 
and  imponderable  changes,  like  heat,  sound,  light,  and 
electricity,  induce  us  to  believe  that  progene  (not  in 
absolute  but  relatively)  fills  all  the  empty  spaces  of 
ponderable  matter,  that  is,  occupies  intermolecular  as 
well  as  interstellar  space. 

It  now  only  remains  for  us  to  combat  the  objection 
made  against  the  admission  of  progene  because  it  has 
no  weight.  The  balance  is  not  the  only  means  of  proof 
for  the  admission  or  rejection  of  a  material  substance. 
Who  can  ever  weigh,  for  instance,  the  odoriferous 
particles  of  musk  ?  Progene  has  not  been  weighed,  and 
besides  never  will  be  weighed,  because  it  is  the  proxi- 


JirifffiiiMiiliy^'^^'^^^ 


'SO 


IV.   PROGENE. 


31.  NATURE   OF  PROGENE. 


15' 


mate  cause  of  the  weight  of  bodies.  The  balance  is 
only  an  instrument  to  determine  a  relation  of  the  atomic 
resistance  to  some  movements  of  progene,  which  are 
determined  by  the  circulation  of  matter  in  living  bodies, 
and  with  such  relations  we  can  form  a  correlative  scale 
of  weights  in  which  the  zero  corresponds  to  progene,  or 
imponderable  ether  of  the  physicists.  Therefore  the 
irreflexive  opinion  which  considers  the  production  of 
the  sensation  of  pression  in  touch  as  a  necessity  proper 
to  material  existence  is  completely  groundless.  Progene 
is  not  a  body  offering  resistance  to  the  touch,  neverthe- 
less it  is  necessarily  a  constituent  material  common  to 
all  bodies.  We  repeat  that  there  are  many  substances 
well  recognized  even  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist, 
which,  like  progene,  do  not  offer  resistance  to  touch. 

§  31.  Nature  of  Progene. 

Innumerable  are  the  facts  which  demand  the  ad- 
mission of  a  perfectly  fluid  matter,  capable  of  propagating 
movements  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  so-called  law 
of  fluid  pression.  This  matter,  moreover,  not  being 
subordinated  to  the  condition  of  gravity,  can  freely 
propagate  an  impulse  in  a  straight  uniform^  movement 
so  long  as  it  is  not  disturbed  in  its  propagation  by  the 
interposition  of  some  other  substance. 

As  in  atoms,  the  extension,  penetrability,  elasticity, 
and  other  properties  of  progene,  are  only  relations  or 
quantitative  factors  of  matter  in  movement ;  thus,  for 
instance,  the  more  reduced  the  progene  in  the  ampli- 
tude of  its  movements  the  less  penetrable  it  is  ;  and  it 
would  become  impenetrable  (that  is,  absolutely  reduced 
to  its  minimum  extension),  if  it  could  be  in  complete 


a  I 


or  absolute  repose,  but  this  is  impossible  in  reality, 
because  there  is  no  part  whatever  which  can  be  con- 
sidered as  isolated  from  the  others  with  complete  inde- 
pendence, and  so,  at  least,  it  must  have  some  degree  of 
heat.  For  this  reason  progene  apparently  acts  as  if  it 
were  a  repulsive  or  elastic  force  in  the  interstices  of 
bodies. 

In  accordance  with  the  chemical  processes  in  which 
it  is  observed  that  bodies  are  combined  in  definite 
proportions  we  have  deduced  the  atomic  constitution  of 
ponderable  matter,  and  in  accordance  with  thermic, 
sonorous,  luminous,  and  electric  changes,  we  infer  that 
imponderable  matter  is  not  atomic,  though  it  keeps  in 
reciprocal  relation  with  ponderable  matter  in  the  quan- 
tity of  its  transferences.  This  is  one  reason  more  for 
affirming  that  imponderable  matter  is  equal  in  quality 
to  ponderable  matter.  The  laws  of  chemical  combi- 
nations— heat  and  weight — are  indeed  very  regular,  as 
their  relations  are  always,  or  with  rare  exceptions,  whole 
numbers,  and  generally  the  smaller  digits.  This  shows 
us,  we  repeat,  that  for  the  necessary  propagations  of 
such  changes  between  the  two  kinds  of  matter  the  pon- 
derable particles  (atoms  and  the  other  molecules)  are 
equal  in  quality  to  progenic  substance,  the  difference 
being  only  one  of  quantity. 

Ponderable  particles,  then,  can  be  conceived  as 
formed  by  condensation  of  progene,  that  is,  atomic  cor- 
puscles can  only  differ  from  progenic  parcels  and  these 
among  themselves,  either  numerically  or  geometrically, 
in  quantity.  Thus  in  the  description  of  cosmos  (with- 
out reference  to  its  real  genesis)  we  give  the  priority  to 
progene  or  imponderable  matter,  considering  ponderable 
matter  as  a  condensation  of  this,  some  vacuum  resulting 


152 


IV.  PROGENE. 


in  the  world  as  the  effect  of  such  condensation  ; 
anticipating  here  that  such  a  change  must  have  been 
engendered  by  the  Primordial  Cause,  not  mechanically 
produced  by  matter  itself,  because  it  supposes  generation 
of  living  force  instead  of  the  loss  which  is  produced  in 
all  the  acts  of  mechanism.  This  descriptive  idea  of 
evolution  of  matter,  beginning  with  progene,  though 
only  an  imaginary  hypothesis  in  genesis,  assists  the 
mental  representation  of  nature  in  its  ultimate  analysis, 
and  is  besides  in  conformity  with  facts. 

Progene  or  primordial  matter  preserves  its  discon- 
tinuity in  parcels  indefinitely  divisible  but  simple,  and 
for  this  reason  it  cannot  be  mutable  in  its  composition, 
though  it  can  be  within  the  porocules  in  different  dynamic 
conditions,  and  in  different  quantities  in  relation  with 
the  molecular  and  electric  states  of  bodies.  In  this  way 
progene,  occupying  the  empty  space  of  ponderable 
matter,  is  the  cosmic  medium  for  the  propagation  of 
action  to  any  distance,  in  interstitial  as  well  as  in  inter- 
stellar space.  By  its  means  the  changes  which  authors 
in  general  refer  to  attractive  and  repulsive  forces  are 
produced  ;  but  because  of  this  we  must  not  consider  it 
as  a  generator ;  it  is  only  a  propagator. 

We  can  add,  in  conformity  with  the  proverb  union  is 
stre7igth,  that  the  quantity  of  progene  supposed  to  be  con- 
densed to  form  an  indissoluble  corpuscle  or  an  atom  is 
manifested  by  the  mechanical  acts  of  gravitation  among 
which  passive  resistance,  so-called,  is  principally  recog- 
nized. This  resistance,  then,  is  the  result  of  a  greater 
mechanical  energy  in  atoms  than  in  a  quantity  of  pro- 
gene of  the  same  volume,  when  a  propagation  takes 
place  between  them,  and  this  is  the  reason  of  the  trans- 
ference of  the  movement  of  interstellar  progene  into  ' 


31 


NATURE   OF  PROGENE, 


153 


gravity  when  it  collides  with  the  atmosphere  and  the 
other  constituents  of  our  planet. 

Permanent  oscillation  which  we  have  denied  in 
molecules  must  be  recognized  in  progene,  not  as  pri- 
mordial but  as  derived,  for  it  is  engendered  by  the 
potence  of  vitality.  Physicists  who  are  at  present  in 
accord  in  maintaining  the  error  that  the  molecules  of 
bodies  are  in  permanent  agitation  in  order  to  produce 
heat  and  sonorous  transmission,  also  agree  in  admitting 
an  inherent  agitation  of  imponderable  matter,  but  to 
maintain  the  kinetic  property  of  matter,  whether  this 
is  ponderable  or  imponderable,  is  a  contradiction  to  the 
principle  of  Conservation  of  Energy  and  its  correlative 
Law  of  Inertia  ;  because  ponderable  matter,  neither  in 
its  indivisible  particles  nor  in  its  bodily  condition,  can 
be  withdrawn  from  the  action  of  gravity ;  neither  can 
we  withdraw  progene  from  the  resistance  of  particles 
composing  ponderable  matter.  Where,  then,  is  that 
inexhaustible  fountain  of  causal  force  which  we  would 
be  obliged  to  suppose  in  all  bodies,  if  the  kinetic  hypo- 
thesis were  true,  in  order  to  preserve  the  same  move- 
ment in  the  molecules  during  all  the  time  the  bodies 
remain  without  change  of  temperature  ?  In  fact,  mani- 
fested changes  of  temperature  imply  molecular  move- 
ment ;  but  the  agitation  which  must  be  produced 
during  the  non-manifested  changes,  as  conservation  and 
radiation  of  heat,  must  occur  in  progene  alone,  and  not 
in  ponderable  particles,  because  otherwise  there  could 
be  no  correlation  of  energy  between  the  antecedents 
and  consequents  of  such  changes.  Molecules  only 
move  in  the  phenomenal  changes  that  heat  produces 
in  bodies,  that  is,  in  the  changes  of  volume  and  state 
as  the  effect  of  variation  of  temperature.     The  kinetic 


«^a!^ . 


154 


IV.   PROGENE. 


31" 


NATURE   OF  PROGENE. 


155 


conception,  which  is  an  impossibility  in  the  case  of 
molecules,  is  not  applicable  to  progene  either ;  never- 
theless, progene  must  persist  in  constant  oscillation  in 
its  interstellar  as  much  as  in  its  interstitial  position, 
because  otherwise  somewhere  we  should  practically  find 
the  absolute  zero,  or  complete  lack  of  heat  which  is 
a  condition  that  can  never  be  realized  ;  and  progene, 
being  without  weight,  is  kept  in  such  motion  by  the 
constant  and  sudden  propagations  throughout  its  parcels 
of  the  change  generated  by  the  cause  of  vitality. 

Rotation,  which  is  so  complex  a  movement,  has  been 
erroneously  predicated  as  a  property  of  all  atoms,  and 
also    of  progene  ;    and   some  great  scientists    think  to 
explain  in  this  manner  elasticity,  so  that  it  may  account 
for  the  loss  of  living  force  in   mechanism.     This  sup- 
posed rotation  of  every  atom  draws  after  it,  they  say, 
the  ether  (progene)  in  its  corresponding  parcels,  so  pro- 
ducing porocular  whirlpools,  and  by  means  of  such  an 
imaginary    primordial    rotation     they   try    to     explain 
physiological  changes,  especially  those  of  physical  state 
and  chemical  metamorphoses.     But  what  is  the  origin 
of  such  a  rotation  ?     To  admit  such  an  inherent  move- 
ment in  matter  is  to  recognize  a  physiological  myth  or 
occult  power  in  nature.     In  fine,  then,  we  must  say  that 
progene  is  an  inert  matter  which,  like  atoms,  does  not 
possess  any  property,  or  activity  in  absolute. 

We  have  previously  resolved  a  question  which  it  is 
here  convenient  to  elucidate  further.  Is  progene  con- 
tinuous or  corpuscular  matter  }  The  difference  between 
the  phenomenal  characters  that  are  referred  to  progene 
and  those  of  ponderable  matter,  principally  in  the  pro- 
pagation of  velocity,  compels  us  to  say  that  progene  or 
imponderable  matter  cannot  be  of  atomic  constitution. 


%  : :' 


We  must  state  that  progene  is  indefinitely  divisible  in 
such  a  manner  that  every  progenic  parcel  is  constantly 
exchanging  portions  more  or  less  small  with  the  sur- 
rounding parcels,  and  from  this  results  an  extraordinary 
lack  of  stability  in  progene.  Therefore,  practically  (and 
theoretically,  of  course),  there  is  no  minimum  limit  of 
quantity  in  the  progenic  parcels  like  that  which  is  recog- 
nized in  ponderable  matter  by  the  fixed  proportions  of 
chemical  changes.  Hence  progene  is  not  formed  of 
atoms,  but  neither  must  we  suppose  it  as  matter  abso- 
lutely continuous,  for  then  there  would  be  no  vacuum 
in  the  world  ;  movement  would  be  impossible  in  it,  and 
quantitative  changes  in  the  most  variable  proportions 
could  not  occur  as  they  are  recognized  in  all  progenic 
phenomena.  Accordingly,  every  progenic  parcel  varies 
greatly  in  dimension,  while  the  dimension  of  every  atom 
must  be  invariable,  though  it  is  indeterminable.  The 
principles  of  thermo-dynamics  are  also  a  positive  proof 
in  favour  of  the  non-atomic  hypothesis  of  progene. 
Nevertheless,  the  atomic  hypothesis  assimilates  progene 
to  the  gaseous  state,  and,  according  to  this,  at  the 
enormous  pressure  at  which  those  who  maintain  the 
theory  of  luminous  undulations  suppose  imponderable 
matter  to  move,  specific  heat  should  be  much  greater 
than  in  any  of  the  gases  at  the  same  temperature,  and 
then  the  minimum  fixed  by  calculation  should  be  still 
greater  after  the  addition  of  the  specific  heat  of  bodies  ; 
but  the  minimum  already  calculated  is  much  greater 
than  the  specific  heat  of  the  most  perfect  gases,  as  is 
demonstrated  by  the  difference  of  their  specific  heat  at 
a  constant  pressure  and  volume.  This  point  is  discussed 
in  the  Theory  of  Heat  (see  "  Theory  of  Physics  "). 


156 


IV.   PROGENE. 


32.   DISTRIBUTION  OF  PROGENE. 


157 


§  32.  Distribution  of  Progene. 


The  extension  which  a  body  apparently  occupies, 
that  is,  the  space  which  appears  to  the  immediate 
observation  of  the  senses  as  full  of  matter  in  continuity, 
contains  invisible  holes  or  hollows,  void  of  ponderable 
elements — vacuum,  though  relatively  full  of  imponder- 
able matter  or  progene.  This  we  admit  and  recognize 
by  reason  and  not  by  the  senses.  We  must  not  con- 
found such  invisible  vacuums  with  those  which  are 
visible,  though  both  are  called  pores  ;  and  in  order  to 
avoid  such  an  equivocation,  it  will  be  more  convenient 
to  ca.\\  porocuks  those  which  are  invisible. 

Progene  is  not  uniformly  distributed  in  the  porocules, 
as  we  infer  from  the  chromatic  dispersion  of  refracting 
bodies,  otherwise  light  would  be  transmitted  always  and 
everywhere  regularly,  according  to  the  laws  of  propagation 
of  movement.  Such  porocules,  then,  are  not  completely 
but  relatively  full  of  progene,  which  in  its  incessant 
revolutions  must  occupy  now  one  part  of  a  porocule 
and  now  another.  From  this  it  results  that  there  are 
no  determined  points  always  vacant,  that  is,  points  that 
never  contain  progene ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  if  any  part 
at  any  given  moment  is  empty,  it  is  immediately  filled 
with  progene,  those  that  are  full  then  becoming  vacant, 
and  so  on.  Progene,  therefore,  moves  in  the  porocules 
as  the  waves  of  the  ocean  come  and  go  over  coast-lands. 

The  discontinuity  of  interstitial  progene  in  diminu- 
tive parcels,  contrasts  with  the  immense  extent  of 
interstellar  progene  in  continuity ;  for  in  this  great 
medium  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  a  division  into 
very  small  parcels  like  those  of  the  interior  of  bodies, 
because  there  are  no  particles  of  ponderable  matter  there 


to  divide  progene.  To  understand  this  difference  we 
have  compared  the  interstitial  progene  with  the  water 
which  is  absorbed  by  the  earth,  and  the  interstellar  with 
that  which  is  accumulated  in  great  masses ;  the  former 
is  distributed  in  discontinuous  parcels,  while  the  latter, 
like  the  water  of  the  ocean,  we  see  altogether  in 
continuity.  This  idea  of  the  distribution  of  water,  which 
is  so  clear  to  the  eye,  is  applicable  by  the  light  of  reason 
to  the  distribution  of  progene,  which  is  not  so  clearly 
perceived. 

The  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  distribution  of  inter- 
stitial progene  in  every  porocule  is  easily  explained. 
Progene  in  its  revolutionary  movements  in  porocular 
spaces  collides  with  the  particles  of  ponderable  matter, 
and  with  the  whirlpool  thus  formed  the  central  points 
of  the  porocules  will  almost  always  contain  progene, 
while  in  the  spaces  near  the  particles  its  presence  will 
be  more  interrupted.  Thus  we  have  resolved  the 
problem  of  the  discontinuity  of  matter  by  deciding  to 
accept  a  fixed  quantity  or  corpuscular  constitution  in 
the  particles  of  ponderable  matter,  and  a  variable  quan- 
tity or  non-corpuscular  constitution  in  the  imponderable, 
which  is  distributed,  not  in  invariable,  but  in  divisible 
particles. 

Here  we  do  not  need  to  treat  further  the  question  of 
the  nature  of  progenic  parcels,  because  we  have  said 
enough  to  induce  us  to  consider  all  matter  as  one  in 
qualitative  nature  or  fundamental  essence,  and  that 
ponderable  or  atomic  matter  is  a  condensation  or 
solidification  of  progene  in  corpuscles  so  diminutive  that 
they  cannot  be  seen  even  by  the  aid  of  the  most 
powerful  microscope.  Such  corpuscles  have  been  called 
atoms  (which  means  indivisible),  because   they  cannot 


I 


BsaijyiMfe.-^affffi'itfiiimirifa^^^^ 


i=;8 


JV.  PROGENE. 


32.    DISTRIBUTION  OF  IROGENE, 


159 


be  divided  by  any  known  manner,  and  so  they  are 
considered  as  the  prime  ponderable  elements.  Hence, 
progenic  parcels  differ  from  atoms,  not  only  in  their 
density,  but  also  in  their  variability,  either  by  continuous 
changes  of  aggregation  or  by  division. 

We  have  admitted  and  recognized  the  existence  of 
progene  in  the  vacuum  where  there  are  no  atoms ;  but 
what  is  the  proportion  between  the  volume  of  atoms 
and  the  dimensions  of  porocular  spaces  ?  The  most 
absurd  ideas  have  recently  been  formed  about  the 
structure  of  bodies,  principally  in  calculating  the  pro- 
portions between  ponderable  and  imponderable  matter. 
The  dimensions  of  porocules  in  relation  to  those  of 
molecules  cannot  be  calculated ;  nevertheless,  in  a 
manner  inadmissible  in  any  light,  some  physicists  have 
exaggerated  the  dimension  of  the  intervals,  comparing 
them  with  interstellar  distances  in  relation  to  the  mag- 
nitude of  celestial  bodies.  Others,  trying  to  be  more 
explicit  and  moderate,  have  said  that  the  relation  in 
water  between  the  space  occupied  by  the  molecules  and 
that  occupied  by  the  porocules  is  as  i  :  22  ;  while  others 
mark  a  relation  almost  the  reverse  of  this,  in  which  the 
cipher  of  the  particle  is  ten  times  greater  than  that  of 
the  porocular  space,  that  is,  as  10:  i.  For  the  present 
this  problem  is  merely  planned,  its  solution  necessitates 
a  complete  comparative  study  of  the  densities  of  bodies 
with  their  differences  of  dilatation  and  change  of  state, 
experimenting  with  heat ;  and  above  all,  greater  per- 
fection is  also  necessary  in  spectral  analysis.  Therefore, 
in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  data  for  the  solution  of 
such  a  problem,  we  must  at  least  have  some  base  for  a 
standard  of  comparison  for  all  bodies,  and  such  a  base 
can   only    be   acquired   by    a    perfect    thermochemical 


and  spectroscopical  study  of  the  elements.     Above  all 
we  see  in  the  spectral  analysis  of  the  future  with  the 
combined  aid  of  the  microscope,  the  light  which  will 
contribute   to   clear    up   and    make   known   to   us   the 
intimate  constitution  of  bodies.     Now  we  may  advance 
as  a  probability  that  the  volumetric  proportions  between 
atoms  and  progene  are :    in  gases  the  volume  of  pro- 
c^ene  must  be  more  than  twice  as  much  as  that  of  atoms, 
in  liquids  such  a  ratio  must  be  nearly  2:1,  and  in  solids 
the  ratio  must  be  smaller  ;  that  is,  the  volume  of  progene 
in  solids  must  be  less  than  twice   that  of  the  atoms. 
We  have  inferred  this  from  the  differential  condensation 
of  both  kinds  of  matter  which  is  in  the  ratio  1:2;  that 
is,  the  atoms  are  almost  double  the  density  of  progene 
when  they  are  in  a  space  void  of  gases.     But  these  data 
are  not  sufficient  data  to  calculate  the  dimension  of  atoms 
with  the  aim  of  deducing  that  of  the  porocules,  or  that 
of  the  progenic  parcels  ;    and   if  we  reflect  on  this,  it 
seems  impossible  that  a  day  will  come  in  which  we  can 
gain   such   knowledge,  remembering   that  we   have   to 
consider  thousands  of  cellules  in  the  length  of  a  mili- 
metre,  the  cellule  being  formed  of  parts  of  heterogeneous 
structure,  and  each  part  containing  different  immediate 
chemical  principles    into  which    molecules   of  different 
nature  enter.     Furthermore,  we  have  demonstrated  that 
it   is    an    impossibility   to    determine    the   absolute   or 
minimum  volume  of  atoms  by  the  methods  that  authors 
have  pretended  to  follow  to  deduce  theoretic  or  relative 
volume  from  atomic  weight,  but  we  have  already  indi- 
cated   (and    demonstrated    more    clearly   in    chemical 
theory)  the  vanity  of  such  a  pretension  (see  "Theory 

of  Physics  ")• 

Accordingly,  the  extension  and  other  properties  of 


liiiMlMIM 


'***'*""°'*--lMatMfcia 


158 


IV,  PROGENE. 


32.   DISTRIBUTION  OF  IROGENE. 


159 


be  divided  by  any  known  manner,  and  so  they  are 
considered  as  the  prime  ponderable  elements.  Hence, 
progenic  parcels  differ  from  atoms,  not  only  in  their 
density,  but  also  in  their  variability,  either  by  continuous 
changes  of  aggregation  or  by  division. 

We  have  admitted  and  recognized  the  existence  of 
progene  in  the  vacuum  where  there  are  no  atoms ;  but 
what  is  the  proportion  between  the  volume  of  atoms 
and  the  dimensions    of  porocular   spaces  ?     The    most 
absurd    ideas    have    recently   been    formed    about    the 
structure  of  bodies,  principally  in  calculating  the  pro- 
portions between  ponderable  and  imponderable  matter. 
The    dimensions  of  porocules  in    relation   to  those  of 
molecules    cannot    be    calculated ;    nevertheless,   in    a 
manner  inadmissible  in  any  light,  some  physicists  have 
exaggerated  the  dimension  of  the  intervals,  comparing 
them  with  interstellar  distances  in  relation  to  the  mag- 
nitude of  celestial  bodies.     Others,  trying  to  be  more 
explicit  and  moderate,  have  said  that  the  relation  in 
water  between  the  space  occupied  by  the  molecules  and 
that  occupied  by  the  porocules  is  as  i  :  22  ;  while  others 
mark  a  relation  almost  the  reverse  of  this,  in  which  the 
cipher  of  the  particle  is  ten  times  greater  than  that  of 
the  porocular  space,  that  is,  as  10 :  i.     For  the  present 
this  problem  is  merely  planned,  its  solution  necessitates 
a  complete  comparative  study  of  the  densities  of  bodies 
with  their  differences  of  dilatation  and  change  of  state, 
experimenting  with  heat ;   and  above  all,  greater  per- 
fection is  also  necessary  in  spectral  analysis.    Therefore, 
in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  data  for  the  solution   of 
such  a  problem,  we  must  at  least  have  some  base  for  a 
standard  of  comparison  for  all  bodies,  and  such  a  base 
can   only    be   acquired   by    a    perfect    thermochemical 


r 


and  spectroscopical  study  of  the  elements.     Above  all 
we  see  in  the  spectral  analysis  of  the  future  with  the 
combined  aid  of  the  microscope,  the   light  which  will 
contribute   to   clear    up    and    make   known    to   us   the 
intimate  constitution  of  bodies.     Now  we  may  advance 
as  a  probability  that  the  volumetric  proportions  between 
atoms  and  progene  are :    in  gases  the  volume  of  pro- 
crene  must  be  more  than  twice  as  much  as  that  of  atoms, 
in  liquids  such  a  ratio  must  be  nearly  2:1,  and  in  solids 
the  ratio  must  be  smaller  ;  that  is,  the  volume  of  progene 
in  solids  must  be  less  than  twice  that  of  the  atoms. 
We  have  inferred  this  from  the  differential  condensation 
of  both  kinds  of  matter  which  is  in  the  ratio  i  :  2  ;  that 
is,  the  atoms  are  almost  double  the  density  of  progene 
when  they  are  in  a  space  void  of  gases.     But  these  data 
are  not  sufficient  data  to  calculate  the  dimension  of  atoms 
with  the  aim  of  deducing  that  of  the  porocules,  or  that 
of  the  progenic  parcels  ;    and   if  we  reflect  on  this,  it 
seems  impossible  that  a  day  will  come  in  which  we  can 
gain   such   knowledge,  remembering   that  we   have   to 
consider  thousands  of  cellules  in  the  length  of  a  mili- 
metre,  the  cellule  being  formed  of  parts  of  heterogeneous 
structure,  and  each  part  containing  different  immediate 
chemical  principles   into  which   molecules   of  different 
nature  enter.     Furthermore,  we  have  demonstrated  that 
it    is    an    impossibility   to    determine    the   absolute   or 
minimum  volume  of  atoms  by  the  methods  that  authors 
have  pretended  to  follow  to  deduce  theoretic  or  relative 
volume  from  atomic  weight,  but  we  have  already  indi- 
cated   (and    demonstrated    more    clearly   in    chemical 
theory)  the  vanity  of  such  a  pretension  (see  "Theory 
of  Physics  "). 

Accordingly,  the  extension  and  other  properties  of 


i6o 


/v.   PROGENE. 


progenic  parcels  are  as  indeterminable  to-day  as  are 
those  of  atoms,  the  properties  of  all  matter  depending 
on  mere  relations. 


§  33.  Forms  of  Progenic  Motion. 

We  can  now  clearly  explain  what  is  meant  by  the 
relative  vacuum  of  bodies^  which  is  the  principal  point 
for  consideration  in  the  hypothesis  of  progene.  Though 
the  existence  of  this  substance  is  not  hypothetic,  the 
reflections  on  how  it  moves  or  acts  are  hypothetical, 
because  we  must  deduce  the  modes  of  its  changes  from 
visible  movements  whose  knowledge  is  acquired  from 
ponderable  matter,  and  afterwards  make  an  application 
of  the  ideas  from  ponderable  to  imponderable  matter  by 
means  of  deductions  not  in  strict  conformity  with  the 
rules  of  syllogism.  In  truth,  in  the  substitution  of  terms 
for  such  conclusions  there  is  no  absolute  identity,  as  the 
w^ords  *'atom"  and  "progene"  represent  different  things 
or  conditions  ;  we  find  ourselves  therefore  on  hypothetic 
ground,  and  must  strictly  follow  the  precepts  given  in 
the  Introdtiction  in  order  to  judge  the  validity  of  the 
ideas  which  we  are  going  to  expose.  We  agree  to 
determine  the  possible  forms  of  invisible  movement, 
progenic  as  well  as  molecular,  from  those  which  are 
visible,  relying  on  the  two  great  guarantees — uniformity 
of  nature  and  conservation  of  energy,  or  inertia  of  matter. 
Though  we  do  not  see  the  movements  of  progene,  many 
phenomena  induce  us  to  believe  that  it  moves,  as  it  must, 
for  instance,  for  photothermic  propagation  from  the 
sun  to  the  earth  ;  and  this  movement  must  continue  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  inertia  or  conservation,  that 
is,  without  increase  or  diminution  of  itself     We  must 


33.    FROGENIC  MOVEMENTS, 


161 


afterwards  imagine  the  possible  interactions  between 
progene  and  ponderable  matter,  taking  into  account  the 
difference  of  concurrence  between  them  in  order  to 
approach  the  truth,  because  in  molar  mechanics  the 
things  in  interaction  have  weight  while  in  the  interactions 
now  under  discussion  we  make  reference  to  progene  which 
is  imponderable  matter,  and  this,  of  course,  may  change 
the  practical  conclusions  of  our  calculations.  We  also 
recognize  the  possibility  of  mutual  progenic  interactions 
by  collision  between  parcels  of  different  movement,  and 
for  this  class  of  actions  the  conclusions  of  pure  rational 
mechanics  (making  the  abstraction  of  gravity)  will  be 
perfectly  suitable  ;  but  we  must  establish  this  great  dif- 
ference that  we  must  here  consider  the  motor  (progene) 
as  perfectly  soft  and  inelastic,  instead  of  conceiving 
motors  perfectly  hard  and  elastic  as  the  mechanicians 
do.  In  this  manner  we  settle  the  basis,  hypothetical, 
of  course,  of  progenic  mechanics,  in  order  to  infer  from 
them  the  modes  of  movement  altogether  invisible,  which, 
nevertheless,  can  be  mathematically  calculated. 

Here  we  must  notice  a  distinction  between  the  relative 
vacuum  of  interstellar  space,  indefinite  in  its  immense 
magnitude  on  the  one  side,  and  interstitial  vacuum,  also 
indefinite,  because  it  is  immeasurably  small,  on  the  other. 
Interstellar  progene  forms  the  universal  means  in  which 
the  planetary  systems  are  immersed,  and  interstitial  pro- 
gene is  that  which  permeates  the  interior  of  all  bodies, 
penetrating  into  all  the  vacant  spaces  of  ponderable 
matter  as  water  permeates  a  sponge  ;  so  that  atoms  are 
immersed  in  interstitial  progene  as  planets  are  in  inter- 
stellar progene. 

We  know  that  all  bodies  have  porocules  (invisible 
pores)  either  in  a    minute   honeycomb   form  (invisible 

M 


l62 


IF.  PROGENE. 


33.   PROGENIC  MOVEMENTS. 


163 


cells)  as  in  solids,  or  in   a   diffuse   form   as   in    fluids 
(liquids  and  gases).     Bear  in  mind  that  when  we  say 
invisible  we  mean  that  which  cannot  be  seen  even  by 
the  aid  of  the  most  powerful  microscope.     The  portion 
of  progene  which    is  within  a  porocule  (more  or  less 
confined    by   atomic    matter)   we    denominate  progemc 
parcel.     This  has  no  fixed  property  and  dimension,  its 
instability  is  ultra-fluidic.     This  limitation  of  progene 
in  parcels,  though  arbitrary  and  indefinite,  helps  us  to 
imagine  the  results  of  progenic  interactions,  and  of  the 
interactions  of  such  progenic  parcels  with  the  molecules 
or  invisible  particles  of  ponderable  matter.     Thus,  for 
instance,  when  a  progenic  parcel  receives  an  impulse  it 
will  travel  in  a  straight  line  and  in  the  direction  of  the 
impulse  while    passing    through    empty  space,  but  the 
moment  it  collides  with  another  progenic  parcel,  or  with 
a    ponderable    corpuscle,    the    movement   will    change 
according  to  the  multiple  conditions  of  the  case.     Now, 
determining  a  concrete  case,  we  can  conceive  a  constant 
result  ;   thus,  for   instance,  progene   colliding  with   the 
particles  which  confine  a  porocule  will  be  in  a  kind  of 
revolution  in  which  it  moves  to  and  fro  among  such 
resistant  corpuscles  in    different   directions    in    accord- 
ance with  the  laws  of  incidence  and  reflection,  every 
progenic    parcel    so   being  in  an   oscillatory  whirlpool. 
Besides  this,  every  progenic  parcel  undergoes  continuous 
interchange  with  the  parcels  surrounding  it,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  liquid  filling  many  communicating  cavities  ; 
and  this  condition  could  only  fail  if  a  body  could  be 
independent    in    the    universe;    but   from    this    a    pure 
theoretical  condition  of  constantly  uniform  movement 
would  result  instead  of  the  variable  one  which   is  the 
rule  and  necessity  of  phenomenal  activity.     From  such 


I 


f 


an  oscillatory  movement  of  interstitial  progene  proceeds 
that  force  of  apparently  repulsive  action  called  caloric, 
whose  effects  of  corpuscular  dilatation  give  the  measure  of 
temperature,  and  determine  the  physical  states  of  bodies. 

We  can  also  imagine  the  result  of  another  case  of 
propagation  in  progene ;  such  is  that  which  depends  on 
the  intermotion  of  progenic  parcels  among  themselves 
as  the  effect  of  an  oft-repeated  impulse  in  the  same 
direction.  An  interrupted  progenic  emission  must  then 
result,  constituting  a  progenic  radiation  which  can  be 
transferred  into  thermic  action  as  the  effect  of  corporeal 
or  interstitial  absorption,  or  perhaps  better  to  say,  the 
effect  of  its  conversion  into  the  oscillatory  movements 
of  the  interstitial  parcels.  Progene  can  also  determine 
luminous  impressions  on  the  retina  \{  the  conditions  of 
such  a  propagating  movement  are  sufficient  in  their 
amplitude  and  velocity. 

We  can  also  arrive  at  the  result  of  the  action  of 
interstellar  progene  with  the  atmosphere.  The  air,  like 
any  other  body,  is  constituted  of  ponderable  particles 
and  progenic  or  imponderable  parcels.  As  in  all  gases 
the  less  the  pressure  on  the  particles  the  more  separate 
they  are  ;  for  this  reason  the  higher  layers  of  the  atmos- 
phere being  less  dense  than  the  lower  have  the  particles 
more  separated.  Thus,  for  instance,  if  we  represent 
by  capital  P  the  progenic  parcels,  and  by  small  p  the 
aerial  particles,  we  can  illustrate  the  constitution  of 
two  different  layers  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  following 
manner : — 


Upper  layer  =  P  /  P 

Lower  layer  =  P    />     P    /     P 


P 
P 


P 
P 


P     V    p 
When  the  first  layer  of  the  atmosphere  is  impulsed 


164 


JV.   FROGENE. 


34.   lOTENTIAL  STATES. 


165 


by  the  pressure  of  interstellar  progene  it  must  produce 
different  results  according  as  the  points  of  collision  are 
the  progenic  parcels,  P,  or  the  atomic  particles,/;  the 
parcels  P,  are  driven  with  a  velocity  equal  to  the  initial 
or  interstellar  impulse,  while  the  particles  /,  being  of 
more  density  than  progene,  diminish  in  velocity  in  pro- 
portion to  their  mass.     The  propagation  of  movement 
in  the  second  layer  undergoes  a  similar  change,  and  calling 
the  second  layer  that  which  has  four  times  more  par- 
ticles than  the  first,  the  interruption  of  the  velocity  of 
the  interstellar  impulse  will  be  there   four  times  more 
than  in  the  first  layer.     Hence,  the  propagation  of  inter- 
stellar impulse  with  its   initial  velocity,  that  is,  across 
the  progenic  parcels,  must  be  in   inverse  ratio  to  the 
square  of  the  distance,  while  the  propagation  of  the  said 
impulse  with  its  velocity  interrupted   by  the  particles 
must  be  in  direct  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  distance. 
The  former  relation  is  the  law  of  radiating  propagation, 
and  the  latter  is  the  law  of  gravitant  propagation  ;  and 
in  this  manner  the  interstellar  impulse  is  divided  into 
photothermic  action  (light  and  heat)  and  gravity.     F'or 
this    reason    the   effects  of  gravitation   are  contrary  to 
those  of  the  repulsion  of  heat.     By  the  effects  of  gravi- 
tation bodies  and  their  particles  approach  nearer  to  one 
another,  and  from  this  results  the  appearance  in  cosmos 
of  attractive  forces  which  together  are  improperly  called 
"  universal  attraction,"  and  which  are  really  the  effects 
of  progene   circulation.     The  radiation  of  progene   in 
bodies  is  easily  transferred  into  progenic  oscillation  of 
the  interstitial  parcels  (heat) ;  and  from  this  arises  the 
constant  opposition  between  the  two  resultants  of  inter- 
stellar action,  that  is  to  say,  between  the  two  opposite 
effects — namely,  progenic  radiation  and  atomic  gravita- 


tion— which  are  displayed  by  the  interaction  of  inter- 
stellar progene  with  our  planet. 

§  34.  Brief  Idea  of  Progenic  Potence. 

The  qualifications,  potent,  latent,  or  passive  forces, 
are    frequently    employed     in    Physics    to    denote    the 
capacity  of  bodies  to  make  manifest,  with  the  appear- 
ance  of  spontaneity,  some   of  the   actual,  present,  or 
active  powers,  known  as  phenomena  of  nature.     Thus, 
when    heat    arising   from   a   chemical    metamorphosis 
is    manifested,  the   chemist   ordinarily   says   that   heat 
was    latent   in  the    bodies    in   which    the   change   took 
place.     All  latent   or  potential   power  is  the  effect  of 
the  distribution  of  progene,  whose  quantity  and  energy 
in  any  point  can  be  greater  or  less  in  relation  with  the 
surrounding  points,  and  the  action  of  the  force  called 
latent   or   potential    may   be    manifested    the    moment 
equilibrium  is  re-established, (escaping,  for  instance,  from 
the  point  where  it  was  excessive  towards  that  where  it 
was  deficient),  and  impressing  the  senses  in  conditions 
to  be  the  object  of  perception.     Thus  bodies  ordinarily 
preserve  some  degree  of  potential  energy,  which,  when 
it  manifests  itself,  produces   determined    thermic   con- 
ditions ;  this  is  principally  recognized  under  the  measure 
called  specific  heat,  which  differs  in  proportion  accord- 
ing to  chemical   combination.      Sensible  heat  or  tem- 
perature is  a   manifestation   of  a   mode   of  molecular 
movement  which  principally  determines  the  dilatation 
or  expansion  of  bodies,  but  besides  this  there  is  po- 
tential or  latent  heat  ;  e.g.  a  body  in  order  to  change 
its  state  of  molecular  aggregation  from  solid  to  liquid 
and  from  liquid  to  gas,  consumes  a  great  quantity  of 


;':^- 


i66 


IV.  PROGENE, 


34.   POTENTIAL  STATES. 


167 


heat  which  is  not  sensible  to  the  thermometer  (potential 
heat),  because  the  intermolecular  distances  have  been 
increased  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  oscillations  of 
progene.  For  this  reason  thermic  propagation  keeps 
at  the  same  degree  during  all  the  time  a  body  is 
changing  its  physical  state.  The  progenic  energy 
which  is  consumed  in  becoming  latent  during  liquefac- 
tion has  been  employed  in  a  work  of  molecular  separa- 
tion, which  consists  in  dividing  the  solid  particles  into 
liquid  ones,  and  we  have  supposed  *  that  every  liquid 
particle  must  contain  two  atoms.  A  similar  thing 
occurs  in  evaporation,  or  in  the  change  from  a  liquid 
to  a  gaseous  state,  but  the  molecular  separation  is  then 
carried  on  in  a  greater  degree,  leaving  every  atom 
separate  from  the  others.  Again,  a  chemical  change  is 
a  heterogeneous  molecular  composition  or  decomposi- 
tion, and  no  more  than  a  continuation  of  the  said 
thermic  changes,  which  are  necessary  to  produce  the 
different  physical  states.  But  in  order  to  explain  the 
different  physical  and  chemical  states  of  bodies,  authors 
have  imagined  the  most  impossible  things.  We  have 
already  said  that  matter  cannot  be  conceived  as  en- 
dowed with  movement  inherent  in  itself ;  that  we  must 
recognize  as  a  primordial  truth  in  nature  only  the 
physiological  law  of  conservation  of  energy,  and  of 
course  the  laws  that  can  be  derived  from  such  an  axiom, 
as  the  law  of  inertia.  Notwithstanding  this,  most 
authors  admit  at  present  that  the  molecules  of  bodies 
are  animated  by  different  movements,  and  by  vibratory 
movement  in  a  permanent  manner ;  that  even  solid 
bodies  never  have  their  molecules  immobile  or  in 
repose,  but  are  constantly  in  vibratory  movement  whose 

*  See  "Theory  of  Physics,"  II.,  Heat. 


amplitude  increases  with  the  temperature.     To  this  idea 
we  oppose  that  of  considering  the  particles  of  a  body 
in  relative  repose   among   themselves  when  the  body 
undergoes  no  change  of  temperature,  nor  a  change  in 
its    physical   or   chemical    state ;   because  if  molecules 
cannot  be  abstracted  from  the  action  of  gravity,  being 
formed,  as  they  are,  of  ponderable  matter,  how  is  heat 
preserved  in  a  body  though  that  body  is  protected  by 
isolating  means  ?      In   order   to  suppose   molecules  in 
constant  movement,  it  would  be  necessary  to  recognize 
in  them  an  exhaustless  fountain  of  inherent  force  which 
we    have    proved  to  be  inadmissable  ;    moreover  heat, 
manifested  by  the  changes  of  temperature,   must   not 
consist  in  vibration   of  ponderable  matter,  but  in  the 
transposition  of  the  particles  among  themselves  ;   this 
translatory    movement    is    only    produced    during    the 
manifested  changes  of  temperature  and  state,  and  when 
the  change  ceases  the  molecules  rest  in  relative  repose. 
What  constantly  vibrates,  or   better  to  say,  oscillates, 
although   it   may  remain    in   a   potential   state,  is   the 
matter  of  the  porocules— progene— which  does  not  lose 
its  energy  by  the  action  of  gravity  because  it  has  no 
weight,  yet  which,  by   its   movements,  determines  the 
force  of  gravitation  in  condensed  or  corpuscular  matter. 
But  keep  well  in  mind  that  the  changes  of  progene  are 
not   primordial  though   they  are  persistent  in  nature  ; 
they  emanate  from  organic  generation.     Such  persistent 
oscillation   and   the   irregular   distribution   of  confined 
progene  are  the  proximate  causes  of  progenic  potence, 
and  therefore  of  all  latent  states. 

Progene,  condensed  or  accumulated  in  a  potential 
state,  can  be  set  at  liberty  either  gradually  or  instantly. 
In  the  first  case  it  ordinarily  produces  light  or  photo- 


& 


i68 


IV.  PROGENE. 


34.   POTENTIAL  STATES. 


169 


thermic  irradiation  and  radiating  heat  ;  and  in  the 
second,  besides  these,  it  can  produce  sound  and  molar 
movements,  forming  the  complex  phenomenon  called 
explosion.  Photothermic  irradiation  results  when  the 
progene  progresses  in  a  diffuse  manner,  and  with  suffi- 
cient velocity  to  impress  the  retina  ;  when  the  irradia- 
tion is  not  sufficient  to  produce  a  luminous  sensation  it 
is  then  simply  thermic  or  radiating  heat ;  this  last  may 
easily  convert  its  translatory  movement  into  oscillatory 
(interstitial  heat)  by  collision  with  a  molecular  resistance 
sufficient  to  oppose  progene  in  a  diffuse  course.  Ex- 
plosion results  when  the  force  of  the  progene  instan- 
taneously freed  greatly  exceeds  the  molecular  resist- 
ance, so  dispersing  the  ponderable  matter  in  pieces  ; 
the  greater  the  quantity  of  progene  and  the  more  in- 
stantaneously it  is  freed,  the  greater  is  the  force  of  the 
explosion,  just  as  in  any  molar  force  or  mechanical 
energy  whatever,  which  always  increases  in  proportion 
to  velocity  (the  other  factors  being  equal). 

Accordingly  the  term  "  latent  heat,"  and  the  other 
latent  forces  of  a  similar  kind,  like  electricity,  will  be 
advantageously  supplanted  by  the  phrase  potential  pro- 
gene. We  state  in  the  "  Theory  of  Physics  "  that  what 
is  called  static  positive  electricity  is  nothing  more  than 
condensed  potential  progene,  and  static  negative  elec- 
tricity is  potential  progene  in  rarefaction  also  confined 
in  a  body,  both  electric  states  being  potential.  The 
electric  current  is  only  latent  progene  passing  in  easy 
conduction  from  a  point  which  is  continually  over- 
charged (effect  of  a  chemical  reaction,  for  instance), 
towards  another  point  in  which  there  is  a  relative  de- 
ficiency. Magnetic  phenomena  are  visible  movements 
determined  by  continuous  currents  of  progene,  which 


H\ 


are  directed  from  condensed  points  towards  others  in 
relative  rarefaction  ;  so  that  magnetism  is  the  most 
peculiar  manifestation  of  electric  transferences. 

The  explanations  of  all  these  facts  are  sufficient  to 
lead  us  to  infer  that  interstitial  progene  exists  in  very 
different  conditions  ;  that  some  is  free  within  the  bodies 
to   manifest    interchanges   with   the   progene   of   other 
bodies,  while  some  is  confined  within  the  body  and  is 
not  manifested  until  a  phenomenal  transference  takes 
place;    in    this   last  condition  of  confinement  progene 
is   potential.     Furthermore,   the    quantity   of    progene 
existing  in   a    parcel    must  vary  in    bodies  with    their 
changes  of  physical  as  well  as  of  chemical  state  ;  thus, 
for  instance,  when  a  body  changes  from  gas  to  liquid 
and  from  liquid  to  solid,  it  frees  or  eliminates  some  fixed 
quantity  of  progene,  and  on  the  contrary  bodies  absorb 
progene  when    they  change    from  solid    to  liquid    and 
from  liquid  to  gas.     Thus,  also,  some  quantity  of  pro- 
gene is  absorbed  in  a  direct  combination  of  elements, 
while  it  is  eliminated  in  a  simple  decomposition  ;  from 
this  arises  the  distinction  of  the  changes  of  state  of 
bodies  into  endothermic  (with  absorption  of  heat)  and 
exothermic  (with  elimination  of  heat).     Accordingly,  in 
every  change  of  state,  some  definite  proportion  of  pro- 
gene is  evolved  which  may  be  z^\^^  progene  of  combina- 
tion or  combined  progene  to  differentiate  it  from  that 
existing  in   variable  proportions  which  may  be  called 
mixed  progene— diS  electricity.     In    short,  confined  pro- 
gene (progenic  potence,  whether   combined  or  mixed, 
this  being  either  condensed  or  rarefied)  is  the  cause  of 
the  latent  powers  called  electricity  and  potential  heat 
(latent  and  radiating  heat). 


I70 


IV.  PROGENE. 


§  35.  Brief  Idea  of  Progenic  Phenomena. 

Progene  may  be  in  a  state  either  potential  (latent)  or 
phenomenal  (manifested).  We  have  already  indicated 
the  results  of  the  former,  it  now  only  remains  for  us  to 
indicate  the  results  of  the  latter  ;  and  here  we  will  ^\v^ 
only  a  slight  idea  of  progenic  phenomena  in  general,  as 
the  study  of  every  progenic  change  in  particular  is  given 
in  our  "  Theory  of  Physics  "  (Chap.  IV.  Sound,  V.  Light, 
and  VI.  Electricity). 

All  phenomena,  those  of  the  inorganic  as  well  as 
those  of  the  organized  world,  are  always  produced  by 
propagated  movement.  We  must  constantly  bear  in 
mind  that  to  consider  matter  or  its  particles  as  endowed 
with  elasticity  and  inherent  movement  is  to  suppose 
also  the  existence  of  an  abstract  or  inherent  force  in 
matter  which  is  really  inert. 

The  degree  of  separation  among  the  particles  of  the 
same  body  chiefly  depends,  not  on  attractive  and  repul- 
sive forces,  but  on  the  intensity  of  the  oscillations  of  the 
interstitial  progene  whose  measure  is  the  temperature  of 
bodies.  The  different  states  of  molecular  aggregation 
that  are  called  physical  states,  which  completely  change 
the  conditions  of  penetrability  in  bodies,  are  also  errone- 
ously explained  in  Physics  by  one  of  the  imaginary  attrac- 
tive forces  called  cohesion  which  we  have  set  aside  as 
we  have  done  in  the  case  of  all  the  others  in  the  abstract 
sense,  limiting  the  meaning  of  the  word  force  to  the 
measure  of  movements  produced  in  correlation  with  the 
law  of  inertia.  When  we  employ  the  term  cohesion  it 
is  in  the  sense  of  a  secondary  or  concrete  force,  resulting 
from  the  interaction  of  progene  and  ponderable  particles, 
and  the  degree  of  cohesion  must  depend  on  the  pre- 


f 


35.  PROGENIC  PHENOMENA. 


171 


dominance  of  the  action  of  gravity  over  that  of  thermic 
or  oscillating  interstitial  progene.  The  resultant  of  such 
a  predominating  force  of  gravity  is  not  constantly  the 
^ame,  the  differences  being  the  cause  of  the  different 
modes  of  molecular  aggregation  from  which  result  the 
four  physical  states  of  bodies,  the  innumerable  chemical 
metamorphoses,  and  still  more  frequently  differences 
of  volume  in  the  same  body  (changes  of  temperature). 
In  a  similar  manner  all  phenomena  are  immediately 
derived  from  the  movement  of  progene  when  they  are 
not  the  effect  of  direct  propagation  from  molar  move- 
ment. Thus  we  must  consider  also  as  proximate  effects 
of  progenic  energy  the  movements  qualified  as  mole- 
cular, magnetic,  and  planetary. 

In  order  to  produce  such  phenomena,  progene  must 
exist  in  two  forms  of  movement,  oscillatory  and  trans- 
latory.  It  may  be  said  that  translatory  movement  is 
the  simplest,  as  the  oscillatory  is  no  more  than  a  return 
movement  or  a  constantly  repeated  reverse  translatory 
movement.  Both  forms  of  movement  may  occur  either 
in  diffuse  or  in  confined  progene,  in  accordance  with 
which  there  are  the  two  different  states  of  progene— 
phenomenal  and  potential,  each  comprehending  two 
different  kinds  of  changes. 

The  two  phenomenal  states  of  progene,  with  the  two 
states  of  potentiality,  compose  the  four  radical  states 
of  progene,  which   may  be  expressed  in  the  following 

manner : — 

I.  Progene  infiltrated  in  the  interstices  of  ponderable 
matter  in  oscillatory  movement,  which,  being  transmitted 
in  determined  conditions  of  amplitude  and  velocity,  can 
be  perceived  either  by  the  ear,  in  the  sensation  of  sound, 
or  by  the  touch,  in  the  sensation  of  heat. 


iSSi^'f 


172 


JV.   PROGENE. 


2.  Progene  in  translatory,  radiating  movement  which, 
playing  upon  the  retina  with  conditions  sufficient  to  be 
perceived  by  it,  produces  the  sensation  of  light ;  and 
when  the  conditions  are  insufficient  to  impress  the  retina 
producing  only  radiating  heat.  In  the  interstellar 
region  both  form  the  photothermic  radiation  which  is 
the  sole  medium  of  all  interplanetary  actions. 

3  and  4  are  potential  states,  progene  in  confined 
current — dynamic  electricity,  and  in  tension — static 
electricity. 

Electricity,  in  fact,  is  not  phenomenal,  because, 
althouorh  when  transmitted  to  the  nerves,  it  can  be 
transformed  into  nervous  action,  it  may  produce  the 
most  different  sensations  according  to  the  organ  ex- 
cited, but  none  of  the  sensations  is  characteristic  of  the 
exciting  agent.  For  this  reason  progene  in  such  states 
is  not  recognized  by  extrinsic  sensation  or  irreflexive 
experience,  but  by  reason,  which  estimates  or  appreciates 
a  synthesis  of  manifestations  whose  proximate  cause 
receives  the  name  of  dynamic  and  static  electricity. 
Hence  electric  currents  are  not  phenomenal  but  potential 
or  latent,  and  progene  in  tension,  called  static  electricity, 
like  the  currents  now  mentioned,  cannot  be  directly 
perceived  while  it  preserves  such  a  state  of  tension  ; 
these  states  are  recognized,  not  by  themselves,  but  by 
their  transferences  into  all  possible  forms  of  manifesta- 
tion and  principally  by  a  phenomenal  synthesis  consist- 
ing in  heat,  explosion,  electrical  sparks,  light,  apparent 
attractions  and  repulsions,  and  so  on. 

Light  and  radiating  heat  are  the  sole  movements 
that  can  be  transmitted  or  propagated  across  interstellar 
progene ;  sound  and  electricity  can  be  transmitted  only 
by  interstitial  progene  which  pervades  all   ponderable 


35.   PROGENIC  PHENOMENA. 


173 


matter,  because,  being  propagated  by  conduction,  some 
degree  of  progenic  condensation  is  necessary  in  order  to 
transmit  them  to  any  distance;  such  a  condition  is 
impossible   to   interstellar   progene   on   account   of  its 

diffusibility. 

Progene,  in  propagating  movements  to  ponderable 
matter,  produces  phenomena  which  result  from  mole- 
cular movement,  and  also  produces  massive  or  molar 
movements.  Molecular  phenomena  are  of  two  kinds, 
calorific  or  thermic  changes,  manifested  heat,  effect  of  the 
oscillatory  movement  of  progene,  and  chemical  meta- 
morphoses, effect  of  its  translatory  movement.  Heat 
is  the  most  frequent  energy  of  molecular  activity,  and, 
for  this  reason,  we  may  consider  it  as  the  typical  energy 
and  standard  of  comparison  in  the  calculations  of  trans- 
ferences. An  inverse  proportion  exists  between  the 
thermic  energy  called  heat  and  the  chemical  energy 
called  affinity;  but,  though  both  kinds  of  molecular 
movements  may  result  from  each  of  the  two  forms 
of  progenic  movement,  the  transferences  between  the 
said  energies  cannot  be  direct  in  both  cases. 

Progene  in  confined  currents  must  produce  the 
molecular  change  of  thermic  effects  by  indirect  trans- 
ference, the  translatory  movement  of  the  progene  being 
then  converted  into  oscillatory  movement ;  and  the 
reverse,  progene  in  oscillatory  movement  cannot  by 
direct  transference  determine  chemical  metamorphoses, 
for  these  require  its  direct  influence  in  translatory  move- 
ment. Hence  the  two  kinds  of  molecular  movements 
may  be  mutually  transferred,  not  directly  into  each 
other,  but  by  the  intermediate  concourse  of  the  progene 
which  needs  to  be  set  in  the  movement  corresponding 
to  the  resultant  molecular  change.     That  is  to  say,  heat, 


174 


IV.   PROGENE. 


in  order  to  produce  a  chemical  change,  first  needs  to 
transform  the  oscillatory  movement  of  progene  into 
translatory,  and,  on  the  contrary,  a  chemical  change, 
in  order  to  produce  a  variation  of  temperature,  must 
first  transform  the  translatory  movement  of  progene 
into  oscillatory.  For  this  reason  the  final  aim  of  pro- 
gressive chemistry  must  be  to  supplant  the  modern 
thermo-chemistry  by  the  electro-chemistry  of  the  future. 
As  all  phenomena  can  be  produced  by  progenic 
changes,  to  comprehend  at  a  glance  the  relation  of 
phenomena  in  nature  with  the  states  of  progene,  we 
have  formulated  the  following  table  : — 


I.  Directly,  pure  progenic  pheno- 
mena. 


r  Acoustic  propagation  :  sound. 


2.  Indirectly,  by 
transference  to 
ponde  rab  le 
matter. 


Molecular 
Phenomena. 


Molar 
Phenomena. 


Photothermic  propagation  :  light. 
'  Change  in  inter-molecular  distance  : 
temperature  and  physical  states  of 
bodies. 
Change   in   molecular    composition  : 

chemical  changes. 
Gradual  and  continuous  transference 
(without   noise) :    gravitation    and 
magnetism. 
I   Rapid   and   noisy   transference :    ex- 
\      plosion. 


V 

I 


It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  phenomena  produced 
by  restoring  progene  to  a  point  in  which  it  is  in  rare- 
faction are  insignificant,  and  are  ordinarily  reduced  to 
very  limited  molecular  changes  and  magnetic  move- 
ments. Progene  in  deficiency  is  the  state  called  negative 
polarity,  while  progene  in  excess  is  the  state  called 
positive  polarity:;  and  this  last  is  what  determines  all 
and  every  one  of  the  phenomena  with  the  greatest 
intensity  and  frequency.  After  what  has  been  said  we 
will  better  understand  the  effect  of  the  resistance  that 
ponderable  matter  opposes  to  imponderable  matter  in 
its  continuous   rushing   across   the  universe,  and  from 


35.  PROGENIC  PHENOMENA. 


175 


which  results  the  illusory  property  of  attraction  which 
authors  consider  as  inherent  to  all  matter,  that  is  to  say, 
universal  gravitation  so  called,  on  which  the  cohesion 
among  molecules  and  the  adhesion  among  masses  depend, 
and  which  is  also  the  proximate  cause  of  the  loss  of 
living  energy  in  the  world's  mechanism  ;  as,  in  fact, 
there  is  always  a  loss  of  manifested  force  determined 
by  the  pressure  of  interstellar  progene,  the  energy  dissi- 
pated or  lost  becoming  then  of  course  latent. 

Molar  or  visible  movement,  when  not  produced  by 
another  massive  movement,  but  by  something  which  is 
invisible,  results  from  direct  or  indirect  transference  of 
progenic  movement ;  thus  the  movement  of  falling  bodies 
(gravity)  results  from  the  pressure  of  the  progene  which 
forms  the  interstellar  ocean.  The  atmosphere,  opposing 
some  resistance  to  the  progressive  movement  of  inter- 
stellar progene,  changes  in  part  this  progressive  move- 
ment into  interstitial  oscillations,  and  these,  being 
transmitted  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  layers  of  the 
atmosphere,  produce  heat  in  direct  ratio  to  the  square  of 
the  distance,  and  this  relation  is  inverse  to  that  of  the 
diff*erent  masses  of  concentric  spheres.  The  transference 
which  most  frequently  occurs  in  the  practical  uses  of 
industry  is  the  production  of  molar  movement  by  means 
of  heat ;  the  reverse  transference,  that  of  molar  move- 
ment into  heat,  being  also  very  well  known.  In  both 
cases  there  is  also  a  progenic  change  which  is  the  inter- 
mediary between  the  molecular  and  the  molar  move- 
ment. 

Progene,  we  repeat,  must  be  in  translatory  movement 
in  order  to  move  the  molecules,  and  thus  it  produces 
chemical  metamorphoses,  while  in  its  oscillatory  move- 
ment it  produces  the  effects  which  are  vaguely  called 


176 


/v.   PROGENE. 


36.  RECAPITULATION, 


177 


by  authors  effects  of  repulsion,  this  being  the  cause  of  the 
great  influence  of  heat  in  the  decomposition  of  combined 
bodies.  Progene  must  be  also  in  translation  in  order  to 
determine  magnetic  phenomena  in  the  same  manner  as 
it  is  to  determine  chemical  metamorphoses,  and  there- 
fore we  may  say  that  chemical  changes  are  in  some 
manner  like  molecular  magnetism. 

§  36.  Recapitulation  of  the  Concept  of 

Progene. 

Progene  can  only  be  admitted  as  a  material  medium, 
and  therefore  is  only  capable  of  propagations  ;  we  must 
conceive  it  as  inert  in  the  scientific  acceptation  of  the 
word,  that  is,  as  a  substance  able  to  propagate  motion 
without  any  power  to  increase  or  diminish  it,  being  then 
subordinate  to  the  principle  of  conservation  of  energy, 
l^esides,  progene  is  neither  elastic  nor  dense,  because 
both  conditions  are  derived  from  the  interactions  of 
ponderable  and  imponderable  matter.  The  hypotheses 
of  imponderable  ether,  as  conceived  up  to  the  present 
time,  are  contradictory  to  the  fundamental  principle  of 
mechanism,  because  they  endow  the  imponderable  meta- 
fluid  with  inherent  elasticity,  and,  according  to  this  con- 
dition, it  should  be  provided  with  a  force  of  pressure 
proportional  to  its  density.  It  is  inconceivable  that  a 
perfectly  simple  and  imponderable  medium  should  be 
elastic,  and  still  less  that  it  should  be  dense. 

Some  scientists  have  fruitlessly  endeavoured  to  ex- 
plain the  phenomena  of  nature  without  recognizing  in 
cosmos  anything  but  ponderable  matter.  We  must 
admit  a  relative,  not  an  absolute  dualism  in  objective 
things,  recognizing  two  kinds  of  matter,  because  some 


propagations  of  changes  in  irradiation  without  visible 
movement,  as  sound,  light,  and  radiating  heat,  and  also 
the  latent  or  potential,  states,  as  electricity,  can  only  be 
explained  by  means  of  an  imponderable  matter  which 
we  Qd\\  progene.  This  matter,  which  is  already  actually 
admitted  by  almost  all  physicists  under  the  name  of 
"  ether,"  to  explain  light,  heat,  and  electricity,  must  also 
be  recognized  as  the  means  through  which  sound  is 
propagated.  (This  is  explained  in  the  "Theory  of 
Physics,"  IV.,  Sound.) 

Bodies,  we  shall  see,  are  complex  objects  constituted 
by  two  fundamental  forms  of  matter,  ponderable  and 
imponderable.  Hence  substances,  actually  considered 
as  chemically  simple,  are  simple  only  in  a  relative  sense, 
considering  ponderable  matter  alone.  There  is  but  one 
simple  object  in  all  nature ;  this  is  the  interstellar  pro- 
gene— that  is,  the  ultra-atmospheric  metafluid  which 
is  generally  recognized  by  physicists  as  the  great  ocean 
of  imponderable  ether. 

We  have  proved  the  necessity  of  admitting  in  science 
qualitative  identity  among  the  things  of  nature,  although 
this  is  not  a  fact  of  irreflexive  experience.  Reason 
teaches  us  that  all  objective  difference  is  quantitative, 
and  therefore  that,  within  the  reach  of  our  perceptions 
at  least,  there  is  nothing  perceptible  in  cosmos  but  the 
relations  among  the  parts  without  any  essential  or 
attributive  distinction.  All  changes  appreciable  to  the 
senses — that  is,  physiological  phenomena,  progenic  as 
well  as  molecular  and  molar — consist  in  changes  of 
matter  in  movement  derivatively  produced  by  the 
mutual  action  of  cosmic  parts,  the  change  effected  being 
primordially  in  vital  genesis.  In  the  changes  of  nature, 
even   in  those  called   imponderable   (progenic   were  a 

N 


"  ^ht. 


,.%i 

:»*<". 


mtj^mss^i^osis^iii^^iie^itaM 


m 


178 


IK  PROGENE. 


36.   RECAPITULATION. 


179 


better  name),  there  is  mutual  or  reciprocal  quanti- 
valence :  by  this  we  mean,  that  the  same  force  necessary 
to  produce  a  determined  consequent  must  be  employed 
to  effect  the  inverse  change ;  that  is,  to  produce  that 
which  was  antecedent  by  means  of  the  other  which 
before  served  as  a  consequent.  Progene,  therefore, 
differs  from  ponderable  matter  in  quantity  only  ;  the 
quality  or  essence  of  all  objects  is  the  same. 

The  constitution  of  imponderable  matter  has  been 
very  much  discussed,  some  authors  maintaining  that  it 
is  atomic  (discontinuous),  and  others  that  it  is  con- 
tinuous matter.  Neither  of  these  two  extreme  opinions 
can  be  accepted ;  the  arguments  given  in  favour  of  the 
atomic  idea  prove  no  more  than  that  there  is  no  con- 
tinuity in  progene.  The  facts  observed  in  progenic 
propagations  induce  us  to  conceive  progene  as  dis- 
tributed in  parcels  which  may  exchange  matter  among 
themselves  without  any  limit  existing  to  such  divisi- 
bility. On  the  other  hand,  the  admission  of  vacuum  is 
as  necessary  to  the  theory  of  cosmos  as  is  that  of  atoms 
themselves.  In  fact,  vacuum  is  necessary  in  order  that 
atoms  and  progene  can  move  ;  yet  it  is  not  absolute, 
it  is  only  relative  ;  porocular  space  is  relatively  fully 
although  in  an  interrupted  manner,  of  imponderable 
matter  or  progene  in  movement.  There  exists,  then, 
a  relative  vacuum  among  atoms  which  is  not  permanent, 
but  which  is  successively  occupied  and  interrupted  by 
the  constant  change  of  position  of  imponderable  matter 
—interstellar  and  interstitial  progene  in  movement. 

The  propagations  through  interstellar  progene  must 
be  instantaneous,  including  their  two  degrees,  photo- 
thermic  irradiations  as  the  sunlight,  and  thermic  as  the 
invisible   propagations  issued  from   the  planets.     The 


sun,  as  a  luminous  body,  is  nothing  more  than  a  great 
focus  of  progenic  reflection,  transferring  the  thermic 
irradiations  which  are  produced  in  the  planets  by  living 
bodies,  especially  by  animals,  into  photothermic  irradia- 
tions or  light.  We  will  see  in  Part  II.  Chap.  VII.  that 
the  sun  has  also  some  surface  of  thermic  emission,  but 
this  is  relatively  very  small.  The  sun  has  no  proper 
force  of  attraction  ;  the  changes  of  interplanetary  gravi- 
tation we  explain  by  the  periodicity  of  vital  activity, 
especially  in  vegetables,  gravity  resulting  from  the  trans- 
ference of  ultra-atmospheric  radiations  of  progene  into 
movements  of  the  mass  of  our  planet.  Accordingly  the 
hub  of  material  circulation  is  the  potence  of  vitality,  and 
not  any  force  of  solar  radiation,  nor  any  other  of  mere 
mechanical  character,  as  gravitation. 

This  is  not  the  opportune  place  to  consider  at  length 
the  parallel  and  difference  between  gravitation  and  the 
forms  of  radiating  progenic  action  ;  but  we  will  make 
this  distinction  clear,  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  and  to 
relieve  ourselves  from  combating  in  detail  most  of  the 
arguments  which  have  been  advanced  against  the  con- 
cept of  gravitation  as  explained  by  progene  (imponder- 
able ether).  Gravitation,  according  to  our  hypothesis 
of  progene,  is  a  movement  precisely  opposite  to  that  of 
radiation :  it  is  a  movement  in  which  the  resultant 
forces  are  approximated  or  concentrated  in  the  direction 
of  the  propagation  according  to  the  ratio  of  the  square 
root  of  the  distance ;  while  in  radiations  like  those  of 
light,  the  resultant  forces,  on  the  contrary,  are  eccentric, 
separating  in  the  direction  of  propagation  in  the  ratio  of 
the  second  power  of  the  distance.  Thus,  then,  a  power 
of  radiation  is  centrifugal,  while  gravitation  is  centri- 
petal;  radiation  is  an  efferent  action  from  the  centre y  and 


^^''^*'^'*ii*'*«^"''^^'^ii^^ 


I  80 


IV.  PROGENE. 


36.   RECAPITULATION'. 


181 


gravitation  is  the  reverse,  afferent  tozvards  the  centre  of 
the  sphere  in  action.      In  spite  of  such  opposition,  the 
action  of  gravitation  is  not  a  thing  absolutely  different 
from  radiation  ;  both  are  direct  effects  from  the  move- 
ments of  the  same  intermediate  agent— progene ;  their 
differences  are  relative,  and  we  have  effectively  marked 
as  the  sole  distinctive  character  between  them  that  they 
are  opposite  in  their  directions,  from  this  alone  arising 
two  contrary  effects  in  the  interstices  of  bodies :  radia- 
tion,   which   being   eccentric   or   centrifugal,  acts    as  a 
repulsive  force  in  its  molecular  transferences  ;  and  gravi- 
tation, which  being  on  the  contrary  concentric  or  centri- 
petal, acts  as  an  attractive  force ;  and  from  this  arises 
the  physiological  analogy  between  the  phrases  universal 
attraction    and    universal  gravitation,    which    we   have 
called  atomic  gravitation.     We  do  not  deem  worthy  of 
consideration  the  objection  in  regard  to  interplanetary 
gravitation  made  by  Arago,  who  has  said  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  the  action  of  gravity  is  instanta- 
neous, and  that  if  universal  attraction  were  the  result  of 
the  impulsion  of  a  fluid,  its  action  must  need  a  definite 
time  in  crossing  the  inamense  distance  which  separates 
the   celestial   bodies.      This    criticism    is    fatal    for   the 
hypothesis  which  considers  interstellar  progene  as  of  an 
atomic   or   absolutely   discontinuous    constitution,    like 
atomists  see  gases  when  they  are  highly  rarefied,  but  it 
does  not  in  any  manner  affect  the  concept  formed  by  us 
of  interstellar  fluid.    This  point  will  be  further  explained 

in  Part  II. 

In  fine  our  hypothesis  of  progene  defends  the  truth 
of  the  organic  theory  in  the  primordial  cause  of  pheno- 
mena, considering  cosmos  as  an  organism,  admitting  the 
Vital  Power  or  Creator  as  the  sole  abstract  or  true  causal 


force,  rejecting  the  materialistic  idea  of  considering  the 
atom  as  active  or  passive  in  itself,  and  maintaining  the 
existence  of  a  universal  means  of  propagation — progene 
— which  is  the  first  matter  in  effecting  the  acts  of  me- 
chanical process,  and  which  is  the  agent  of  indirect 
transferences  when  they  appear  to  be  produced  by 
distant  influences. 

Here  we  will  make  no  further  explanation  of  pro- 
genic  changes,  because  they  form  the  special  topics  of 
Progenic  Physics  in  our  "  Theory  of  Physics." 


l82 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY ;   OR, 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


183 


together  forming  great  masses  visibly  discontinuous  in 
their  ponderable  matter. 

4.  Universal  system  resulting  from  the  union  of  all 
bodies  under  a  supernatural  plan. 

Every  one  of  these  different  syntheses  will  form  the 
subject  of  a  separate  chapter. 


PART  II. 

SYNTHESIS  OF  COSMOS:  SYNTHETIC 
CONCEPT  OF  BODIES. 

Material  substance  is  either  ponderable  or  imponder- 
able ;  the  former  is  a  condensation  into  diminutive, 
indivisible,  and  indeterminable  particles  called  atoms, 
and  the  latter  is  the  metafliiid  called  "  ether,"  by  the 
physicists,  and  which  we  call  progene ;  this  last,  in 
opposition  to  the  indivisible  corpuscles  or  atoms,  is  dis- 
tributed into  variable  parcels.  To  form  a  complete 
idea  of  cosmos  in  its  general  sense  we  must  make  an 
application  of  the  general  concept  of  matter,  not  only 
to  its  two  fundamental  forms  separately,  but  we  must 
also  consider  them  jointly  in  the  constitution  of 
bodies. 

This  is  the  aim  of  Part  II.,  and  we  shall  see  that  the 
complexity  of  bodies  is  of  different  degrees  forming  four 
syntheses,  namely — 

1.  Inorganic  bodies  :  atomic  and  progenic  matter 
together  forming  bodies  which  are  either  solids  or 
fluids. 

2.  Organic  bodies  :  solids  and  fluids  forming  together 

organisms. 

3.  Planetary  bodies  :    inorganic  and  organic  world 


Ik 


A 


i84 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


37.   CONSTITUTION  OF  GASES. 


185 


CHAPTER  V. 

CONCEPT    OF    INORGANIC    BODIES    (PONDERABLE    AND 
IMPONDERABLE    MATTER    TOGETHER). 

§  37.  Constitution  of  gases — §  38.  Kinetic  hypothesis  of  gases — §  39. 
Differences  among  physical  states — §  40.  Slight  idea  of  symmetrical 
bodies — §  41.  Chemical  states — §  42.  Spectral  analysis  applied  to  the 
study  of  the  constitution  of  bodies — §  43.  Recapitulation  of  the  consti- 
tution of  bodies,  especially  of  gases. 

I  37.  Constitution  of  Gases. 

Inorganic  bodies  are  in  four  different  states  ;  two 
solid,  and  two  fluid.  Solid  bodies  are  either  symmetric 
or  asymmetric,  and  fluids  are  either  liquid  or  gaseous. 
The  complete  theory  of  the  physical  state  of  bodies 
cannot  be  known  without  a  previous  study  of  heat, 
because  by  heat  only  can  we  explain  clearly  and  dis- 
tinctly the  differences  and  changes  among  these  four 
states. 

The  genesic  study  of  the  change  of  state  in  bodies 
is  given  in  the  Theory  of  Heat,  "  Theory  of  Physics." 
Nevertheless  we  must  now  give  the  fundamental  notions 
on  the  physical  constitution  of  bodies,  beginning  with 
the  descriptive  study  of  gases  which  is  the  most  interest- 
ing, because  they  are  the  simplest,  and  because  the 
system  of  atomic  weights  at  present  generally  adopted 
by  chemists  is  based  on  the  law  of  Gay-Lussac  relative 


to  the  discovery  of  the   relations   of  volumes   among 
combined  gases. 

Bodies  in  their  gaseous   state   appear  to  have   an 
expansive  force  which  consists  in  a  centrifugal  pressure, 
sensibly  equal  in  all  points  of  the  vessel  which  contains 
them.      Expansive  force  is  almost  equal  in   all   gases 
when  they  have  the  same  temperature  and  the  same 
quantity  of  matter.     For  this  reason  the  limit  of  volume 
of  a  gas  is  determined  only  by  the  resistance  of  the 
vessel  in  which  it  is  enclosed,  and  if  these  limiting  walls 
are  so  arranged  as  to  reduce  the  capacity  of  the  vessel 
we  are  obliged  to  increase  the  pressure  according  to 
this  reduction  of  volume ;  that  is  to  say,  the  expansive 
force  of  gases  decreases  in  proportion  to  their  volume. 
Again,   there    is    another   general    fact:    if  we   change 
the  degree  of  heat  of  gases  which  are  enclosed  in  a 
vessel  constantly  of  the  same  volume  we  find  that  their 
expansive  force  increases  in  proportion  to  their  temperature. 
Most  authors  have  tried  to  explain  these  two  empiric 
laws  by  the  hypothesis  of  Avogadro,  which  consists  in 
supposing  that  equal  volumes  of  gas  or  vapour  have  the 
same  number  of  molecules,  these  being  proportional  to 
the  densities  and  having  a  volume  double  that  of  the 
atomic  volume  of  hydrogen.     In  accordance  with  such 
an  idea  these  authors  deduce  the  weight  of  the  con- 
stituent molecules  of  gases   in  the  following  manner : 
if  every  molecule  of  a  gas  occupies  two  atomic  volumes, 
to  obtain  the  molecular  weight  it  is  sufficient  to  mul- 
tiply the  density  of  the  gas  by  two.     The  standard  of 
comparison  is  the  density  of  hydrogen,  which,  compared 
with  that  of  the  air  (ordinary  standard  for  other  purposes) 
is  14*44  times  smaller. 

Such  reasoning  as  this  of  Avogadro  is  a  circle  of 


\ 


\ 


i86 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


37.    CONSTITUTION  OF  GASES 


187 


/ 


/ 


puzzles;  while  pretending  to  give  a  prepositive  conclusion, 
it  simply  arrives  at  a  verbal  explanation,  doing  nothing 
more  than  to  affirm  in  the  consequents  the  same  idea  put 
forth  in  the  antecedents,  in  different  words  but  without 
teaching  anything  new.  Nevertheless  chemists  believe 
that  the  hypothesis  of  Avogadro  is  a  basis  sufficient  to 
determine  the  molecular  constitution  of  simple  bodies, 
and  especially  that  of  gases  either  simple  or  compound. 
Accordingly,  they  have  decided  that  bodies,  including 
the  simple  ones,  are  formed  of  molecules  which  are  dis- 
tributed with  perfect  uniformity  in  the  gaseous  state 
and  at  immense  distances  from  one  another,  and  that 
such  distances  are  equal  in  all  gases  and  vapours. 
Chemists  also  admit  that  the  space  occupied  by  every 
molecule,  whether  the  body  is  simple  or  compound,  is 
equal  to  two  atomic  volumes  of  hydrogen,  but  that  while 
the  molecules  of  some  bodies  are  monoatomic,  those  of 
others  are  polyatomic,  atomic  aggroupations  more  or 
less  complex  so  resulting.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  mole- 
cules of  the  simple,  more  permanent  or  perfect  gases, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  are  considered  as  dia- 
tomic, that  is,  formed  of  two  atoms  exactly  equal. 

It  is  true  that  the  densities  and  atomic  weights  are 
equal'  in  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  bromine, 
and  iodine ;  but  the  density  of  the  vapour  of  mercury  is 
half  of  its  atomic  weight,  the  densities  of  phosphorus 
and  arsenic  are  double  that  of  their  corresponding 
atomic  weights,  and  the  density  of  sulphur  is  three 
times  greater.  But  it  being  impossible  to  divide  atoms, 
chemists  have  supposed  that  a  molecule  of  mercury  is 
composed  of  a  whole  atom,  and  that  then  the  molecule 
of  hydrogen,  for  instance,  should  have  two  atoms  and 
so  on.      From  this  arises  their  arbitrary  distinction  of 


bodies  into  monoatomic,  diatomic,  triatomic,  tetratomic 
and  hexatomic.  These  expressions  must  not  be  con- 
founded in  this  sense  with  the  same  expressions  when 
they  serve  to  qualify  what  is  called  atomic  quantiva- 
lence,  that  is,  their  value  of  combination,  or  better  still 
their  relation  among  the  bodies  as  they  take  the  place 
of  one  another  in  chemical  metamorphoses.  From  all 
this  we  clearly  infer  that  the  intimate  constitution  of 
gaseous  bodies  is  not  the  same  for  all  of  them,  and 
therefore  that  neither  the  number  of  particles  nor  the 
spaces  between  them  are  equal  in  all  the  gases  and 
vapours  of  simple  bodies.  Besides,  they  are  not  equiva- 
lent in  their  chemical  molecules,  as  has  been  demon- 
strated by  the  discovery  of  polybasic  acids. 

We  have  seen  that  the  present  notion  of  the  consti- 
tution of  bodies  is  derived  from  atomic  weights,  these 
being  determined  by  the  ponderable  relations  of  bodies 
in  their  combinations  or  chemical  metamorphoses.  But 
if  the  volumes  of  atoms  are  determined  by  dividing 
the  atomic  weights  by  the  densities  (weights  in  the 
unity  of  volume),  this  quotient  is  not  really  the  volume 
of  atoms,  but  rather  that  of  atomic  parcels  which  may 
be  occupied  by  atoms  only  in  a  very  small  extension  in 
relation  to  the  interatomic  space  occupied  by  progene. 
The  space  of  such  a  unity  of  volume  then  is  far  from 
being  occupied  by  ponderable  matter ;  it  contains  a 
considerable  proportion  of  imponderable  matter,  espe- 
cially when  the  gases  are  not  under  great  pressure. 

The  assertion  that  equal  volumes  of  all  gases  contain 
an  equal  number  of  molecules  is  worthless.  It  is  pro- 
bably true  that  the  vapour  of  mercury  is  the  gaseous 
body  which  in  greatest  extension  has  only  an  atom  for 
nucleus,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  mercury  is  mono- 


'''""-.  ^'v'^.,?'''^''T?^s^^ffi. 


1 88 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


38.   KINETIC  HYPOTHESIS. 


189 


atomic  and  other  gases  polyatomic.  Supposing  that 
the  atoms  of  all  ponderable  substances  have  the  same 
degree  of  condensation,  as  is  inferred  from  the  fact  of 
the  falling  of  all  bodies  with  the  same  velocity  in  a  tube 
from  which  the  air  has  been  exhausted,  the  difference 
among  atoms  must  be  in  geometrical  proportions  and 
in  nothing  else ;  with  this  we  have  sufficient  to  establish 
chemical  differences  among  bodies  without  the  necessity 
of  admitting  an  impossible  elective  force  in  various 
degrees — affinity.  The  inequality  in  the  volume  and 
form  of  atoms,  gives  us  not  only  an  explanation  of  the 
different  atomic  weights  and  of  specific  heat,  but  also  of 
the  inverse  proportion  of  these  for  every  simple  body, 
so  that  the  product  of  these  ratios  is  about  equal  for  all 
bodies,  6*4.  Accordingly,  there  is  no  reason  for  the 
atomic  classification  of  bodies,  because  if  this  were  true 
it  would  oblige  us  to  presuppose  that  chemical  differ- 
ences could  result  from  different  degrees  of  condensa- 
tion of  the  minimum  particles,  which,  as  we  have  proved, 
is  contrary  to  fact.  Therefore,  the  hypothesis  of 
Avogadro  is  an  erroneous  interpretation  of  the  em- 
pirical laws  of  gases ;  it  does  not  explain  them,  and  it 
does  not  account  for  the  fact  of  an  almost  equal  force 
of  dilatation  of  all  bodies  in  a  gaseous  state ;  on  the 
contrary,  such  a  hypothesis  increases  the  confusion 
which  has  been  already  caused  by  the  kinetic  theory. 
The  chemical  molecule,  and  not  the  true  atom,  is  the 
smallest  portion  to  which  the  relations  of  weight  and 
volume  of  the  combinations  make  reference ;  but  such 
a  molecule  as  that  of  the  chemists  should  be  formed  of 
an  indefinite  number  of  separate  atoms,  though  this 
number  must  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  mass  or 
quantity  of  matter  of  every  atom,  on  the  supposition 


that  the  conditions  in  which  the  bodies  in  reaction  are 
found,  are  the  same.  There  is  reason  to  deduce  from 
chemical  laws  that  atomic  masses  keep  simple  volu- 
metric relations  among  themselves,  as  the  numbers  i,  2,  3, 
4,  6 ;  but  this  does  not  imply  that  the  chemical  mole- 
cule whose  position  in  such  a  scale  is  six  is  formed 
by  an  atom  in  determined  volume,  and  that  that  mole- 
cule whose  position  is  one  should  need  six  atoms.  We 
do  not  know  any  more,  we  repeat,  than  the  relation,  and 
we  can  only  take  the  abstract  numbers  to  represent  such 
a  proportion  without  thereby  fixing  any  knowledge  of 
the  real  atomic  constitution  of  bodies.  Therefore,  the 
numbers  i,  2,  3,  4,  6,  which  correspond  to  the  denomi- 
nations monoatomic,  diatomic,  etc.,  denote  only  a 
relation  of  volume  among  chemical  elements,  and  not  a 
determined  number  of  atoms. 

§  38.  Kinetic  Hypothesis  of  Gases. 

We  will  now  see  how  the  dynamic  condition  of  gases 
is  interpreted  by  the  so-called  kinetic  hypothesis,  which 
is  the  current  scientific  opinion  of  the  day,  though  it  is 
altogether  an  impossibility.  We  have  already  said  that 
the  kinetic  hypothesis  is  inadmissible,  whatever  may  be 
the  state  of  matter,  but  the  kinetic  hypothesis  of  gases 
has  taken  such  a  leading  place,  in  spite  of  its  worthless- 
ness,  that  we  must  occupy  ourselves  with  it  in  particular.^ 
The  results  of  some  calculation  on  the  phenomena  of 
nature  have  apparently  confirmed  such  an  interpreta- 
tion of  modern  atomism  ;  thus,  for  instance,  the  specific 
heat  of  gases  when  their  temperature  is  increased  under 
conditions   which    permit    their    expansion   in   such   a 

*  For  elucidation  on  this  point,  see  "  Theory  of  Physics,"  II.,  Heat, 


..^  i^^.^a,^,...^.^'^ 


titftMfeiaiiyaaiiiMtMa 


4-- 


190 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


33.  KINETIC  HYPOTHESIS, 


191 


manner,  that  the  pressure  to  which  they  are  submitted 
always  remains  the  same,  is  a  Httle  greater  than  when 
the  temperature  is  increased,  and  they  are  at  the  same 
time  constantly  reduced  to  the  same  capacity,  in  which 
case  the  expansive  pressure  of  gases  increases.  Clau- 
sius  has  determined  the  theoretic  relation  of  specific 
heat  in  these  two  conditions  as  i  :  i'6y.  But  though 
this  relation  is  constantly  exact  for  mercury,  it  is  not 
exact  for  permanent  gases,  in  which  the  relation  is  only 
as  I  :  1*40.  Most  authors  explain  this  by  saying  that 
the  difference  of  0*27  between  these  two  quantities 
consists  in  this,  that  the  permanent  gases,  being  dia- 
tomic, employ  some  work  in  changing  the  intermolecular 
disposition  of  the  two  atoms  in  relation  with  the  tem- 
perature, while  in  the  mercury,  which  they  suppose 
monoatomic,  the  gaseous  molecules  do  not  employ  any 
other  energy  than  that  of  progressive  movement  in  the 
case  of  free  dilatation.  In  this  we  clearly  see  that 
modern  physicists  have  used  a  play  on  numbers  as 
frequently  as  a  play  on  words  to  maintain  false  ideas, 
for  such  a  difference — 0*27 — can  only  depend  on  volu- 
metric (or  geometric)  differences  among  atoms. 

We  can  well  conceive,  after  the  notion  we  gave  of 
atoms  and  progene,  that  when  gas  expands  freely  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  pressure  is  constantly  the  same, 
progene  has  to  lose  in  velocity  as  it  increases  in  the 
amplitude  of  its  oscillations,  and  as  an  effect  of  this 
the  molecules  will  be  separated,  some  progenic  move- 
ment being  then  transferred  into  molecular,  which  is 
spent  in  the  work  necessary  to  control  the  force  of 
gravity  in  the  particles  or  molecules.  But  when  the 
gas  is  confined  in  such  a  manner  that  it  cannot  expand, 
the  work  of  molecular  separation  is  not  produced  while 


^  t 


it  is  heating,  and  then  the  movement  of  progene  increases 
only  in  velocity,  so  that  the  difference  of  work  between 
the  two  cases  must  be  greater  when  there  is  a  greater 
quantity  of  ponderable  matter  in  the  gaseous  parcels, 
this  denomination  being  given  to  a  determined  volume 
which  is  equal  for  all  gases. 

Most    physicists,   accepting   the   erroneous   idea   of 
equality  of  intermolecular  spaces  in   gases,  think  they 
can    explain    by  the  kinetic   hypothesis   the   following 
empirical  laws:    (i)  quality  of  expansion  of  gases  by 
heat ;    (2)   equality   in    the    reduction    of   volume    by 
pressure ;    and    (3)   simple    proportions   of    volume   in 
their  combinations.     But  these  three  facts  are  the  result 
of  proportional  quantities  of  ponderable  and  imponder- 
able  matter   existing   in   all  gases.     According  to  the 
kinetic  hypothesis  of  gases,  their  constituent  particles 
or  atoms  vibrate  freely  in   perpetual  movement ;    this 
being  preserved,  they  say,  by  virtue  of  an  absolutely 
perfect     elasticity,     which     they     suppose    to    be    an 
essential   property  inherent  in  all  kinds  of  molecules. 
But    the    idea    of    endowing    gaseous    particles    with 
the   liberty  and  independence   necessary  to    move   in- 
cessantly  in    all    directions   is   either   forgetfulness    or 
ignorance  of  the  relativity  which  exists  among  all  parts 
and  particles  of  nature.     Whence  comes  such  movement 
without  analogy  with  any  experienced  fact  and  in  con- 
tradiction to  the  principle  of  conservatism  and  the  law 
of  inertia?     It  seems  to  be  an  idea  erroneously  sug- 
gested by  Astronomy,  with  the  additional  aggravating 
circumstance    that    the    supposed     particles,    in    their 
movements   to   and    fro,   should   collide   among   them- 
selves.    Then    they   try   to    explain    the    continuation 
of  energy  by  making   another  gratuitous   supposition, 


192 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


39.    PHYSICAL  STATES, 


193 


that  of  endowing  gaseous  particles  with  the  necessary 
elasticity  to  compensate  the  loss  of  energy  which  should 
be  produced  by  their  collisions  with  one  another.  We 
must  never  forget  the  action  of  gravity,  as  it  is  an 
illusion  to  believe  that  gaseous  particles  could  be  in 
absolute  liberty  during  the  time  that  elapses  between 
one  collision  and  another,  in  order  that  the  abstract  and 
illusory  conception  of  an  incessant,  uniform,  and  rectili- 
neal movement  should  be  perfectly  realized. 

So  we  see  the  kinetic  theory  sets  gravitation  aside 
and  supposes  the  gaseous  particles  to  be  endowed  with 
perfect  elasticity  ;  it  therefore  is  a  hypothesis  without 
any  validity  whatever;  it  is  thus  judged  and  found 
wanting  by  its  own  enunciation  as  it  is  contradictory  to 
the  correlation  of  energy  between  the  antecedents  and 
consequents  of  phenomena. 

In  addition  to  this  the  so-called  elasticity  of  gases 
is  an  equivocal  phrase,  whose  signification  has  been 
improperly  ascertained  by  authors,  as  it  consists  in  what 
is  also  called  their  expansibility,  which  is  recognized  by 
the  centripetal  pressure  determined  by  the  gases  on 
the  walls  of  the  vessel  containing  them,  and  whose  force 
is  directly  proportional  to  temperature  and  inversely 
proportional  to  the  volume  occupied  by  the  same 
quantity  of  gas.  This  phenomenon  is  very  different 
from  that  called  elasticity  in  solid  bodies,  which  con- 
sists in  their  condition  not  to  augment,  but  to  occupy  a 
portion  of  space  whose  volume  and  forms  are  deter- 
mined ;  this  elasticity  is  recognized  by  the  reaction 
against  any  force  or  action  producing  a  modification  in 
the  volume  or  in  the  form  of  solid  bodies,  observing  the 
fact  that  such  force  or  reaction  is  always  weaker  than 
the  action  of  the  deforming  force.     We  persist  in  saying 


■■ 


that  this  elasticity  of  solids  is  not  like  that  of  fluids 
which  is  nothing  more  than  the  reaction  against  reduc- 
tion of  their  volume.  In  any  way  elasticity  as  a 
property  inherent  in  particles  of  matter  is  as  enigmatic 
as  if  it  were  applied  to  matter  in  general  ;  it  is  a  word 
which  represents  a  fact,  but  which  gives  no  explanation 
of  it,  and  it  is  one  of  the  many  relics  of  occult  qualities 
believed  in  by  the  ancients. 

§  39.  Differences  among  the  Physical  States. 

According  to  the  hypothesis  held  by  most  authors 
ponderable  particles  (atoms  and  the  other  molecules) 
are  supposed  to  be  in  continuous  or  eternal  agitation, 
and  therefore  more  or  less  separated  from  one  another 
in  all  physical  states.  In  order  to  avoid  the  explana- 
tion of  such  an  enigma  they  content  themselves  by 
saying  that  we  cannot  see  such  particles  and  for  this 
reason  we  cannot  see  their  separation  and  movement. 
This  supposition  once  made,  they  explain  the  differences 
between  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  states  in  the  following 
manner :  in  a  solid  when  the  molecules  vibrate,  etc., 
they  can  separate  only  very  little  from  their  initial 
position  ;  in  a  liquid  there  is  not  so  great  a  restriction 
to  the  excursions  of  the  molecules,  but  yet  their  free 
path  is  also  limited  to  short  distances  ;  in  gases  the 
molecules  move  freely  and  rapidly,  being  separated  from 
one  another  by  enormous  distances.  Physicists  so 
accustomed  to  the  abstract  conceptions  of  theoretic 
mechanics  forget  the  weight  of  the  particles,  and  repre- 
sent bodies  as  constructed  of  enigmatic  molecular  forces, 
explaining  the  solid  state  by  greater  attraction  than 
repulsion    among    the    molecules,   the    liquid    by   the 

O 


t1t-fiiliii<ifrMwifraiiiiirfiteai^ 


194 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


39.  PHYSICAL  STATES. 


195 


equilibrium    of    the   said   forces,   and    the   gaseous   by 
greater  repulsion  than  attraction.     By  the  play  of  such 
abstract  forces  most  authors  suppose  that  when  the  mole- 
cules of  a  solid  are  impulsed  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
vibrations  which   correspond  to  them  they  will   easily 
return    to   their   former    position    "according   to   their 
proper  law  ; "  that  the  molecules  of  a  liquid  can  pene- 
trate through  all  parts  of  the  space  occupied  by  a  liquid 
"  without  being  solicited  by  attraction  to  return  to  the 
place  from  which  they  started;"  and   finally,  that  the 
molecules   of  gases  ''carried  on   by  their   own  or  by 
ethereal  repulsion"  travel  with  a  rapidity  which,  they 
say,  is  about  twenty  miles  a  minute  in  the  air,  moving 
during  their  course  in  a  straight  line  because  they  are 
**not  under  the  action  of  any  other  force,"  until  they 
collide  with  one  another  like  billiard  balls.     It  is  only 
then,  they  add,  that  every  molecule  changes  its  course 
in    a  new  direction  !     By   means  of  so  extravagant   a 
hypothesis  most  authors  pretend  to  explain  many  facts, 
among  them  those  already  mentioned  as  the  Laws  of 
Boyle,  Marriotte    and    Gay-Lussac.     Thus   also  taking 
for  a  basis  the   existence   of  molecules  in  continuous 
movement  vibrating   in    accordance  with   their   proper 
law  they  explain  gaseous  pressure  by  the  bombardment 
of  the  walls  of  the  vessel  by  the  molecules  of  the  gas  it 
contains.     They  think  that  temperature  depends  upon 
the  velocity  of  molecular  agitation,  and  for  this  reason 
when  the  density  of  a  gas  changes  its  pressure  varies 
in  the  same  proportion.     (This  is  their  explanation  of 
the  Law  of  Boyle.)     They  also  explain  the  proportion 
between  the  density  of  the  gases  at  the  same  pressure 
and  temperature  and  the  masses  of  their  molecules,  by 
saying  that  when  two  gases  have  the  same  pressure  and 


\ii  -•  ^-x.  s  ■ 


\ 


temperature  there  are  an  equal  number  of  molecules 
in  all  of  them  in  the  same  volumes  or  in  the  unity  of 
volume.  (This  is  the  hypothesis  called  that  of  Avogrado.) 
According  to  what  has  been  said,  physicists  affirm  that 
when  atoms  or  molecules  (minimum  particles)  after  a 
collision  follow  on  in  their  free  path,  they  vibrate  accord- 
ing to  their  proper  law,  whatever  may  otherwise  be  the 
state  of  the  body ;  that  this  law  is  determined  by  the 
construction  of  the  particle  itself,  being  different  for 
every  species  of  substance,  and  they  add  that  the 
vibration  must  manifest  itself  in  relation  with  the 
intensity  of  the  collision  not  only  with  that  which  they 
call  proper  or  fundamental  vibration,  but  also  with  all 
the  movements  possible  to  every  particle.  Finally  they 
believe  that  the  agitation  of  imponderable  ether  after 
every  molecular  vibration  is  the  means  whereby  light 
and  spectrum  are  produced,  comparing  the  molecule  to 
an  emitter,  the  ether  to  a  wire,  and  the  eye  to  the 
receiving  apparatus  of  such  a  telegraphic  system. 

We  can  clearly  see  that  the  notion  of  physicists 
about  bodies  in  their  different  states  is  opposed  to  the 
true  concept  which  we  must  form  of  material  nature  in 
which  nothing  is  independent,  no  other  forces  existing 
than  the  concrete  measure  of  movement,  the  manifesta- 
tions of  movement  being  engendered  in  the  universe  by 
the  Creator  acting  first  in  the  organisms  to  produce 
their  vitality.  In  truth  an  atomic  constitution  in  which 
there  is  a  complete  separation  among  the  ultimate 
indivisible  particles  is  only  possible  when  bodies  are  in 
a  gaseous  or  vaporous  state.  But  it  is  a  compulsory 
conclusion  from  the  erroneous  premise  of  the  persistent 
molecular  vibration  that  atoms  must  be  considered 
completely   separate    in    all    their   different    states    of 


196 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


aggregation.      Such    a   supposition    is   only  applicable, 
we  repeat,   to   the   gaseous  state  ;    in  the  other  states 
the  atoms    must    be    in    contiguity,   forming   complex 
particles   which  we   have   denominated   hydrocules  and 
orocules.     In  liquids  we  must  suppose  every  two  atoms 
in    perfect   contiguity,   thus    forming   double   particles, 
which  are  more  or  less  separated  from  one  another  by 
oscillating  progene,  whose  oscillatory  energy  balances 
the   centripetal   action   of  gravity,   and  so  the  atomic 
pairs  or  hydrocules  are  free  to  change  their  orientation 
on  the  slightest  impulse.     Such  particles,  which  we  call 
hydrocules,  when  grouped  among  themselves  touching 
one  another  in  complete  contiguity,  remaining  fixed  in 
determined  orientation,  form  solid  bodies  (see  Heat,  in 
"  Theory  of  Physics  ").     These  may  be  either  symmetric 
or  asymmetric  ;  in  the  first  case  they  are  called  crystals, 
in  the  second  amorph  bodies.     But  when  the  hydrocules 
are  united  to  form  a  solid  they  must  leave  porocules 
of  honeycomb   form  between  them,  these  determining 
a  kind  of  limit  to  the   solid   particles  which  we   call 

orocules. 

We  admit,  then,  three  kinds  of  invisible  particles— 
molecules — according  to  the  state  of  bodies. 

1.  Atoms — completely  separated — gaseSs 

2.  Hydrocules — atoms  united  two  by  two — liquids. 

3.  Orocules— \iydiXOQ,\x\^'s,  partially  united — solids. 
These  last  may  be  either  symmetric  or  otherwise. 

But  gas  and  liquid  are  in  reality  the  same  state,  liquids 
resulting  when  gases  are  under  molar  pressure ;  and  it 
may  be  said  that  without  molar  reclusion  no  liquid 
would  remain  in  such  a  state,  but  pass  into  the  gaseous 
one,  and  this  may  be  easily  proved  even  with  the  most 
weighty  of  all  liquids — mercury — which  will  evaporate 


39.   PHYSICAL  STATES. 


197 


as  soon  as  the  atmospheric   pressure   is  very  rarefied. 
Another   opposite  character  between  solids  and  fluids 
is  that  bodies   need  to  be   in  one  of  the   fluid  states 
(gaseous  or  liquid)  in  order  to  experience  a  chemical 
metamorphosis.     Again,  fluids  have  the  progenic  space 
almost  free,  or  at  least  very  diffuse,  while  solids  have 
it  divided  into  little  cells  or  porocules  which  communi- 
cate with    one   another   though   in  a  limited   manner. 
The  greatest   contrast,  then,  in  physico-chemical   rela- 
tions is  observed  between  fluids  and  solids ;  neverthe- 
less,  between   gases   and   the    other    states   of    bodies 
there  are  very  remarkable  differences.     Great  order  and 
simplicity  reign  in  gaseous  combinations,  thus  gases  are 
combined  in  defined   and  very  simple   proportions   of 
volume    as    expressed    by    the    law    of    Gay-Lussac ; 
this   relation    does   not   exist   in   the    combinations   of 
liquids ;   and  the  immediate  combination  of  solids   is 
impossible,  as  they  must  necessarily  become  fluid  in 
order   to   be   combined.      Besides   the   volumetric  and 
thermometric  relations  of  gases  are  very  exact,  because, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  the  volume  of  gas  increases 
and  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  pressure 
and  heat ;    its  velocity  of  diffusion  is  in  inverse  ratio 
to  the  square  of  the  density  ;  its  specific  heat  is  sensibly 
the  same  at   all   temperatures,  and  it  is   the  same  in 
relation  to  a  given  weight  whatever  may  be  its  density 
and    pressure ;    and,  finally,  specific   heat   is   also   the 
same  for  all  gases  in  equal  volume  when  they  are  not 
condensed  in  the  moment  of  formation.     Bodies  in  a 
liquid  or  solid  state  are  wanting  in  such  relations. 

Now  following  an  order  inverse  to  the  genesis  in  the 
changes  of  state,  that  is,  supposing  a  body  first  in  a 
solid  state,  it  needs  some  heat  in  order  to  become  liquid, 


198 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


40.    CRYSTALS. 


199 


and  such  heat  is  employed  in  the  division  of  the  solid 
particles  or  orocules,  not  into  atoms  separate  from  one 
another,  but  into  liquid  particles  or  hydrocules,  and 
these  need  in  the  same  manner  more  oscillatory  energy 
of  progene  (heat)  in  order  to  suffer  their  division  into 
atoms.  The  body  will  then  have  passed  to  the  gaseous 
state.  Hence,  following  the  probable  genesic  order  in 
the  change  of  state  in  bodies,  liquids  result  from  the 
pairing  of  atomic  conglomerations  of  gases,  and  solids 
result  from  the  conglomeration  of  all  these  hydrocules 
in  contiguity.  This  notion  of  the  polyatomic  particles 
in  liquids  and  solids  is  a  logical  deduction  from  the 
work  that  is  necessary  for  the  change  of  state  and 
change  of  temperature  of  liquids  and  solids.  But  as 
the  complete  knowledge  of  changes  of  state  belongs  to 
molecular  physics,  we  refer  this  question  to  "  Theory  of 
Physics,"  where  we  have  fully  explained  our  assertions. 

§  40.  Slight  Idea  of  Symmetric  Bodies — 

Crystals. 

In  order  to  know  the  constitution  of  solid  bodies,  it 
is  very  important  and  necessary  to  study  their  symmetric 
forms,  because  the  exterior  symmetry  is  in  relation  with 
the  interior  symmetry,  that  is,  with  that  which  results 
when  a  crystal  is  fractured,  and  from  this  we  draw  the 
highly  probable  inference  that  the  form  of  crystals  must 
also  be  in  relation  with  the  smallest  invisible  particles 
of  solidification,  that  is  to  say,  with  the  orocules. 

When  a  crystal  is  fractured  the  resulting  pieces  are 
not  perfectly  homogeneous  in  all  directions,  but  show 
plain  surfaces,  which  present  constant  incidences  among 
themselves  and  with   the  natural  or  exterior  facets  of 


the  crystal,  so  that  the  portions  which  result  when  a 
crystal  is  fractured  have  their  forms  in  relation  with  the 
fundamental  or  primitive  figure.  Similarity  in  symmetry, 
according  to  which  the  same  kinds  of  crystals  have 
constantly  the  same  angles,  though  the  dimensions  and 
forms  of  the  surfaces  may  be  different  in  every  crystal 
of  the  same  kind,  is  the  fundamental  character  of 
crystals.  All  crystals  have  the  common  condition  of 
being  polyhedrical,  their  angles  always  out-jutting ;  the 
surfaces  by  their  intersection  forming  straight  lines  or 
edges,  and  these  again  intersecting  form  the  angles  of 
the  crystal,  which  are  called  vertices. 

The  fact  of  constant  correlation  between  the  form 
and  the  diffusibility  of  bodies  is  very  interesting ;   the 
crystallizing   substances,  that  is,  those  which  are  sus- 
ceptible of  acquiring  symmetric  forms  by  solidification 
are  much  more  diffusible  than  those  which  cannot  be 
crystallized.     The   so-called  amorph  substances,  which 
would  be  better  denominated  asymmetric,  are  scarcely 
or   not   at   all   diffusible,  that   is   to  say,  they  are  not 
susceptible  of  mixing  among  themselves  when  they  are 
left  quietly  superposed,  or  when  a  solid  is  put  in  contact 
with  water,  or  else  when  different  solutions  are  separated 
by  very  porous  membranes.    Symmetric  bodies  (crystal- 
loids) are  also  very  diffusible  among  those  which  cannot 
be  crystallized  (asymmetric  or  colloid),  and  their  diffu- 
sion is  generally  as  rapid  as  in  pure  water.     Crystalloid 
bodies  in  a  gaseous  state  (probably  on  account  of  the 
form  of  their  atoms)  are  more  susceptible  of  diffusion, 
and  pass  with  great  facility  even  through  impenetrable 
layers  or  membranes  to  liquids,  and  they  can  pass,  not 
only  through    very  porous   laminas,  but   also   through 
metallic   ones   when    these    are    submitted    to   a   high 


iriea«.ii3iriKaft»inaryii>v.flttfe#t^'«>^--^       "-^ 


i.j.f-aj-a.aa^»«««<Mj>3M 


2JO 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


41.    CHEMICAL  STATES. 


201 


temperature,  that  is  to  say,  when  they  are  dilated  by 
heat.  These  facts  confirm  our  theory  of  the  differences 
among  the  particles  in  the  intimate  constitution  of 
bodies  in  their  physical  state,  and  so  confirms  the 
following  affirmations  which  are  contrary  to  the  opinions 
held  by  most  authors :  neither  symmetric  nor  asym- 
metric solids  are  in  a  free  molecular  state ;  nor  are 
liquids  constituted  of  atoms  separated  from  one  another 
but  of  atoms  grouped  in  separate  pairs.  In  solids  all 
the  atoms  are  in  immediate  contact,  but  not  in  their 
whole  surface,  they  leave  among  themselves  many 
spaces  like  invisible  cells — vacuums — more  or  less  small 
in  every  substance  according  to  the  temperature  ;  these 
are  what  we  have  denominated  porocules,  and  which 
must  necessarily  exist  also  in  crystals.  The  particles 
into  which  a  solid  is  partially  divided  by  such  diminutive 
cells  we  call  orocules.  The  porocules  of  solid  bodies, 
then,  are  all  cellular,  not  completely  closed,  but  forming 
a  kind  of  open  little  cell,  which  in  crystals,  at  least,  must 
be  of  polyhedric  regular  form  in  correlation  with  their 
visible  characters. 

The  law  of  symmetry,  which  shows  us  the  regular 
proportions  among  many  inorganic  bodies,  is  an  addi- 
tional proof  of  the  beautiful  constitution  of  the  universe 
even  in  its  smallest  details. 

Two  peculiar  conditions  of  crystals — allotropism  and 
isomorphism — are  worthy  of  mention. 

Allotropism  is  the  peculiar  circumstance  common  to 
different  particular  forms  or  states  of  the  same  class  of 
matter  which  result  from  the  various  modes  of  grouping 
invisible  particles.  When  such  particles  are  dissolved, 
changing  their  allotropic  state,  either  an  absorption 
or  an  elimination  of  heat  is  produced,  as  in  the  case 


of  a  chemical    reaction    and   the   changes   of  physical 
states. 

IsojHorphism  consists  in  analogies  of  configuration 
between  bodies  chemically  different,  observing  that  there 
is  great  connection  between  the  forms  of  bodies  and  the 
forms  of  their  combinations,  so  much  so  that  Berzelius 
adopted  as  a  principle,  that  atomic  weights  of  simple 
bodies  are  such  that  similar  or  isomorphic  combinations 
ought  to  receive  analogous  forms.  This  is  one  fact  in 
favour  of  the  correlation  between  crystalline  forms,  and 
the  characters  of  the  constituent  invisible  particles  of 
bodies. 

§  41.  Chemical  States. 

Dynamically  considered,  the  process  of  chemical 
metamorphosis  is  no  more  than  the  continuation  of  the 
process  of  changes  of  bodies  in  their  physical  state. 
This  is  not  the  right  place  to  study  the  production  of 
such  phenomena,  which  will  only  be  mentioned  in  order 
to  establish  the  culminant  similarities  and  differences  in 
the  constitution  of  bodies  according  as  they  are  simple 
or  compound.  Though  calculation  in  reality  does  not 
find  any  limit  to  the  divisibility  of  matter,  we  know  that 
practically  there  is  some  relative  limit  of  division  never 
passed  by  the  experimental  actions  of  chemical  and 
physical  changes  of  state  ;  such  particles  are  the  atoms 
which  are  supposed  to  be  homogeneous  in  themselves, 
among  themselves,  and  with  the  whole  of  the  body  in 
those  substances  which  form  the  chemical  simple  species, 
called  simple  bodies,  and  in  which  atom  and  molecule 
are  synonymous.  Other  bodies  have  in  themselves  the 
appearance    of    being    homogeneous    in    their    optical 


'■A^&L. 


202 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


41.    CHEMICAL  STATES. 


203 


character  ;  the  most  diminutive  particles  are  then  similar 
among  themselves,  but  they  are  not  similar  in  them- 
selves, because  by  the  action  of  heat,  for  instance,  a 
compound  being  either  alone  or  mixed  with  other 
bodies,  may  be  divided  or  decomposed.  In  such  cases, 
it  is  said  that  the  elements  were  chemically  combined  ; 
the  smaller  particles  in  the  physical  division  of  such 
bodies  which  are  not  decomposed  in  their  elements  are 
called  heterogeneous  molecules.  Accordingly,  bodies 
are  chemically  divided  into  simple  and  compound,  the 
last  comprehending  binary,  ternary,  and  quaternary 
combinations.  The  terms  organic  and  inorga7iic  are 
somewhat  equivocal  in  science,  as  chemists  and  natural- 
ists use  them  in  a  different  sense,  chemists  including  as 
organic  matter  the  definite  compounds  of  carbon^  resulting 
from  the  molar  analysis  of  living  structures,  while  many 
naturalists,  with  better  criterion,  call  organic  bodies 
which  are  either  living  or  dead  ;  those  in  the  last  case, 
however,  still  preserving  the  structural  character  which 
the  living  body  presented  to  our  ocular  observation. 
We  have  adopted  the  words  organic  and  inorganic  in 
this  last  signification. 

Binary  compounds.  The  most  important  and  essen- 
tially binary  body  in  the  world  is  water,  which  repre- 
sents half  of  the  weight  of  the  earth  at  least,  and  serves 
either  as  a  vehicle  of  dissolution,  or  as  a  constituent  part 
of  more  complex  combinations.  The  other  binary  com- 
pounds are  not  important  in  this  work  of  generalizations. 

Ternary  compounds  may  be  subdivided  into  com- 
pounds with  carbon  (hydrocarbons)  and  without  carbon  ; 
the  former  are  usually  elaborated  by  living  matter ;  the 
latter  are  salts  very  easy  of  formation  in  the  laboratory 
as   phosphates   and    chlorides    of  soda,  of  potash,  etc. 


The  ternary  compounds  of  carbon  are  alcohols,  sugars 
(glucose  and  saccharine),  and  greasy  and  soapy  sub- 
stances. 

Quaternary  compounds.  Among  these  are  albuminoid 
substances,  which  are  the  principal  constituents  of  living 
matter.  All  the  chemical  principles  of  this  group  are 
nitrogenized,  and  contain  also  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  and  the  principal  albuminoids  contain  sulphur 
besides,  one  kind  only — coloured  proteins — containing 
iron.  Nitrogenized  substances  or  nitro-carbons  may  be 
classified  into  crystalloid  and  colloid.  The  last  almost 
corresponds  to  what  are  called  albuminoids,  in  which 
only  two  crystalloid  substances  are  included — hemo- 
globine  and  viteline.  There  are  many  species  of  nitro- 
carbons,  among  which  the  most  important  are  (i) 
crystalloids,  acids,  as  uric  acid,  amides,  as  urea,  and 
colouring  matter,  as  hemoglobine  ;  (2)  colloids,  as  albu- 
men, fibrine,  casein,  etc. 

These  are  the  chemical  states  (distinct  from  the 
physical  ones),  in  which  even  in  the  same  body  there 
are  great  differences  in  intermolecular  distances,  and  m 
the  state  of  aggregation  in  their  particles. 

Almost  all  chemists  recognize  to-day  the  analogy  of 
all  chemical  combinations  ;  the  organic  compounds  so- 
called  by  authors  (but  better  named  immediate  principles 
of  organism),  do  not  essentially  differ  from  those  called 
inorganic  compounds.  Thus,  the  supposed  simple 
radicals  are  assimilated  according  to  Proust's  theory  to 
the  compounds  denominated  organic  radicals  ;  the 
former  differ  from  the  latter  only  in  their  greater  stability 
so  much  that  they  have  resisted  up  to  this  time  all  efforts 
to  analyze  them  and  to  produce  them  in  the  laboratory. 
Here  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  chemical  operations 


204 


V.  INORGANIC  BODIES. 


41.    CHEMICAL  STATES. 


205 


Sf- 


cannot  be  logically  divided  into  organic  and  inorganic, 
because  there  is  no  phenomenal  difference  between  the 
reactions  qualified  by  such  opposite  denominations,  and 
finally  that  all  chemical  metamorphoses  are  mechanic 
results,  as  is  heat  or  any  other  physical  phenomenon. 
Therefore,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  most  complete 
harmony  exists  among  all  chemical  reactions,  and  that 
there  is  no  absolute  difference  between  organic  and 
inorganic  metamorphoses ;  and  from  this  arises  the 
present  true  tendency  to  unify  these  two  unjustly 
separated  branches  of  Chemistry. 

It  is  believed  that  the  atomic  weights  of  all  simple 
bodies  are  a  multiple  of  one  particular  body.  This  body, 
which  must  be  the  primordial  chemical  type  (protile? 
=  x)  is  not  hydrogen,  as  was  formerly  believed,  from 
the  fact  that  the  relations  of  the  other  bodies  with  it 
as  a  unity  are  expressed  almost  always  in  entire  num- 
bers, but  there  are  some  exceptions  to  that  rule,  and 
this  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  not  considering  hydrogen 
as  the  type.  If  all  simple  bodies  belong  to  a  natural 
family  forming  by  their  relative  value  an  arithmetical 
progression,  we  again  infer  that  even  bodies  considered 
as  simple  in  Chemistry  are  aggregates  of  one  kind  of 
matter  alone,  though  with  quantitative  differences.  By 
irreflexive  experience,  at  first  sight,  we  observe  indefinite 
varieties  of  similar  bodies ;  nevertheless,  after  all  are 
analyzed,  they  are  relatively  reduced  to  a  very  limited 
number  of  chemical  elements,  about  seventy  in  all.  In 
every  one  of  these  their  minimum  particles  are  similar 
among  themselves,  and  with  the  totality  of  the  mass,  so 
that  the  bodies  constituted  by  only  one  of  those  elemental 
species  of  matter  are  completely  homogeneous  in  and 
among  themselves.     If  the  molecules  of  a  simple  body 


(homogeneous  molecules)  come  in  contact  with  others 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  complex  particles  (hetero- 
geneous molecules),  every  one  constituted  by  molecules 
of  the  two  kinds,  the  conflict  of  a  chemical  reaction 
called  combination  is  produced.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  resulting  compound  submitted  to  the  actions  of 
other  bodies  may  be  disassociated  into  its  elements,  so 
producing  the  contrary  reaction  called  decomposition. 

Most  chemists  admit  that  such  metamorphoses 
among  heterogeneous  bodies  are  produced  by  a  special 
force,  the  exclusive  resource  of  Chemistry — such  is  the 
so-called  affinity  ;  they  add  that  such  a  force  is  different 
from  that  which  produces  the  union  of  homogeneous 
molecules,  and  they  admit  still  another  for  their  sepa- 
ration or  repulsion.  But,  in  our  day,  some  distinguished 
chemists  are  studying  the  great  connection  between 
heat  (a  mode  of  movement  acting  as  a  repulsive  force) 
and  affinity  and  cohesion  (which  act  with  the  appearance 
of  attractive  forces).  We  shall  see  in  Chap.  VII.  that 
these  attractive  actions  are  perfectly  explained  by  the 
preponderance  of  the  centripetal  pressure  of  progene — 
ravity  upon  the  centrifugal — thennity.  If  the  direct 
combination  of  bodies  emits  heat,  the  same  heat  must 
be  newly  absorbed  in  the  moment  of  their  decompo- 
sition ;  and  it  is  a  very  important  and  fundamental  fact 
of  modern  thermo-chemistry  that  the  thermic  and 
chemical  actions  are  always  in  such  a  correlation. 

Most  chemists  have  not  contented  themselves  with 
endowing  atoms  with  the  inherent  force  they  call  affinity, 
they  have  supposed  them  besides  as  possessing  a 
property  in  themselves  as  a  consequence  of  their  own 
constitution  which  they  call  quantivalence  or  valence 
alone.     This  is  the  relation  in  the  substitution  of  the 


o 


2o6 


V.   INORGANIC  BODIES. 


42.   SPECTRAL  ANALYSIS. 


207 


bodies  in  their  chemical  combinations.  The  particular 
criticism  of  such  ideas  belongs  wholly  to  the  Theory  of 
Chemistry  given  in  "  Theory  of  Physics." 

§  42.  Spectral  Analysis,  applied  to  the  Study 
OF  the  Constitution  of  Bodies. 

The  new  spectral  analyses  have  revealed  great  know- 
ledge of  the  constitution  of  bodies,  not  only  in  the 
gaseous,  but  in  the  other  states.  All  bodies  may  become 
luminous  when  they  are  submitted  to  the  action  of 
great  heat,  but  luminous  radiations  vary  according  to 
the  constitution  of  bodies,  with  specific  characters  for 
every  one.  The  particles  which  produce  light  and  the 
spectrum  can  be  considered  as  the  characteristic  mole- 
cules of  the  chemical  species,  because  the  spectral  images 
of  compound  bodies  are  characteristic  of  them,  that  is 
to  say,  of  their  complex  particles  (which  we  call 
chemical  parcels),  and  not  of  the  component  elements — 
atoms.  It  is  always  necessary  to  take  care  not  to 
decompose  them  by  the  temperature  needed  for  the 
experiment,  because  if  they  are  decomposed  by  the 
action  of  the  flame,  it  is  then  observed  that  all  the  com- 
pound bodies  of  the  same  metal  generally  produce  the 
same  spectrum  consisting  in  the  rays  emitted^  by  the 
common  constituent  element. 

Although  the  luminous  radiations  of  simple  bodies 
produced  under  the  same  circumstances  are  different 
and  characteristic  for  every  element,  giving  in  every 
case  a  determined  spectrum,  we  must  observe  that  the 
spectrum  varies  according  to  the  temperature  and  the 
state  of  the  body  when  submitted  to  the  experiment. 
The  spectrum  of  all  bodies,  elemental  and  compound. 


( 


may  vary,  as  we  have  now  said,  with  the  different  degrees 
of  temperature  ;  thus,  for  instance,  sulphur  heated  to  a 
dark  red  produces  a  continuous  spectrum  obtained  by 
absorption,  but  if  it  is  heated  to  a  white  red,  we  obtain 
the  linear  or  discontinuous  spectrum.  Spectrum  analyses 
show  us  clearly  that  when  a  simple  solid  is  heated  its 
constituent  particles  are  more  separated,  and  this  state- 
ment is  applicable  to  all  bodies.  The  spectrum  varies 
also  and  principally  according  to  the  physical  state  of 
bodies.  When  the  first  studies  in  spectrum  analysis 
were  made,  all  physicists  only  took  into  account  the 
extreme  cases  of  spectrum,  and  the  general  proposition 
was  enunciated  that  "solids  and  liquids  give  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum,  while  gases  and  vapours  give  a  linear 
one."  But  the  spectroscope  has  shown  us  besides  inter- 
mediate images  between  the  two  extreme  cases ;  such 
intermediate  spectrums  are  fringed,  or  at  least  there  are 
continuous  but  partial  absorptions  which  can  be  resolved 
into  such  a  fringed  spectrum. 

All  spectroscopic  facts  show  us  the  correlation  be- 
tween the  molecular  changes  in  the  constitution  of  a 
body  and  the  spectral  variations.  This  correlation  is 
erroneously  interpreted  by  the  kinetic  hypothesis,  main- 
taining that  the  only  molecular  difference  in  bodies, 
when  they  change  their  physical  state,  is  the  greater  or 
less  extension  of  intermolecular  space  without  any 
variation  in  the  particles ;  so  that,  according  to  the 
kinetic  hypothesis,  these  particles  are  the  same  for  solids 
and  liquids  as  for  gases.  If  (according  to  this  hypothesis) 
the  particles  were  equal  in  all  the  states,  a  difference  in 
movement  only  existing,  it  is  clear  that  all  authors 
should  deduce  the  false  consequence  that  under  different 
conditions   of  intermolecular  space  the  same  particle, 


208 


V,   INORGANIC  BODIES, 


according  to  the  different  states  of  its  supposed  vibra- 
tions, would  give  us  such  spectroscopic  differences  as 
those  between  continuous  and  linear  spectrum,  which  is 
contrary  to  fact.  The  particles— atoms— which  con- 
stitute a  gas  are  disposed  with  great  order,  and  are 
separated  from  one  another  by  the  oscillatory  move- 
ment of  interstitial  imponderable  matter  (progene)  as 
is  seen  by  the  spectrum  analysis  ;  while  in  the  other 
states  the  spectrum  reveals  great  atomic  union,  especially 
in  solids,  and  greater  still  if  they  are  not  subjected  to  a 
very  high  temperature. 

The  number  of  characteristic  lines  in  a  spectrum 
is  proportional  to  the  chemical  equivalents ;  and  the 
luminous  absorption  (in  the  spectrum  of  absorption  of 
course)  is  proportional  to  molecular  complexity.  From 
these  facts  arises  the  supposition  that  the  unity  of 
atomic  comparison  {i,e.  protile)  will  be  determined  when 
we  find  the  body  whose  spectrum  is  characterized  by 
only  one  line  ;  and  precisely  such  a  kind  of  spectrum 
has  been  recognized  among  the  sun's  constituents,  and 
has  been  called  helium.  Is  this,  then,  the  long-sought- 
for  protile  }  Reason,  always,  though  in  different  ways, 
is  obliged  to  establish  the  inductive  unity  in  nature  in 
order  to  derive  physiological  relations  and  theories. 

Spectroscopic  facts  are  not  in  connection  with  mole- 
cular motion,  but  with  the  manner  of  molecular  aggre- 
gation. The  continuous  spectrum  will  result  when  the 
atoms  are  grouped  in  greater  though  incomplete  con- 
tiguity, in  opposition  to  the  line-spectrum  which  supposes 
the  atoms  widely  disseminated  in  the  bodies — gases  and 
vapours — which  produce  it ;  and  in  addition  to  this  we 
observe  that  such  a  spectrum  results  only  when  a  very 
high  electric  tension  is  employed  for  the  incandescence 


42.   SPECTRAL  ANALYSIS. 


209 


of  gaseous  bodies,  and  that  even  at  the  highest  tem- 
perature produced  by  combustion  the  vapour  of  some 
elements  give  us  a  continuous  spectrum  in  the  most 
refrangible  extreme.  When  the  density  of  gases  is 
increased,  and  their  temperature  diminished,  their  spec- 
trum becomes  more  and  more  complicated  ;  while  on 
the  contrary  it  is  possible  with  small  pressure  and  high 
temperature  to  obtain  from  gases  and  vapours  a  spec- 
trum consisting  of  one  line  alone,  different  in  every  one 
of  the  gaseous  bodies,  in  which  case  the  atoms  are  much 
more  separate  than  in  the  other.  But  bodies  in  a  solid 
or  liquid  state  always,  or  almost  always,  produce  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum,  whatever  may  be  their  degree  of 
incandescence ;  this  denotes  the  contiguity  of  atoms  in 
these  bodies,  forming  greater  and  more  proximate 
particles. 

Our  explanation  of  spectrum  is  as  follows  :  When 
a  body  is  heated  to  incandescence  the  imponderable 
material  or  progene  acquires  more  amplitude  in  its 
oscillatory  movements,  until  it  cannot  be  contained 
within  the  porocules  of  the  body;  it  is  then  partly 
forced  outside  of  the  body  and  so  establishes  the  radi- 
ating movement  of  progene — light  and  radiating  heat. 
Hence  corporeal  particles  are  only  reflectors,  either 
Vpolyatomic  as  orocules  and  hydrocules,  or  monoatomic 
as  the  particles  of  gases.  These  last,  from  their  small- 
ness  and  great  dispersion,  may  be  discontinuous  reflec- 
tors, for  this  reason  producing  discontinuity  in  refraction 
through  the  prism  ;  when  the  discontinuity  is  very  great, 
we  see  the  line-spectrum  which  perhaps  is  produced  by 
the  reflection  of  every  separate  atom.  The  particles  of 
liquids  and  solids  are  always  continuous  reflectors,  this 
being  the  effect  of  their  greater  magnitude  and  prox- 


2IO 


V.   INORGANIC  BODIES. 


43.   RECAPITULATION. 


211 


imxty.  Finally,  the  fringed  spectrum  gives  us  reason  to 
suppose  that  it  is  produced  by  orocules,  whose  atoms, 
though  in  close  contiguity,  leave  large  porocular  spaces 
as  the  effect  of  the  expansion  produced  by  very  high 
temperature  or  by  electric  tension. 

§  43.  Recapitulation   of   the   Constitution   of 
Bodies,  especially  of  Gases. 

The  true  atomic  and  molecular  constitution  of  bodies 
exists  only  in  their  gaseous  state,  and  for  this  reason  the 
study  of  the  constitution  of  gases  is  most  interesting. 
To  think  rightly  on  the  constitution  of  gases,  we  have 
been  obliged  first  to  fix  the  facts  establishing  the 
generalizations  called  laws,  and  afterwards  to  select  the 
theoretical  ideas  that  have  been  considered  as  evident 
or  very  probable  in  order  to  infer  a  logical  interpre- 
tation of  such  empirical  laws.  These  are  three:  (i) 
All  gases  (simple  and  compound)  change  volume  equally 
when  they  are  subjected  to  the  same  variations  of  f 
temperature  and  pressure ;  (2)  all  gases  have  the 
same  fixed  relation  (with  slight  differences)  between 
their  capacity  under  a  constant  pressure  and  their 
capacity  under  a  constant  volume  ;  (3)  gases  are  com- 
bined in  very  simple  relations  (first  digits,  i,  2,  3,  or 
the  most  simple  fractions  J,  J,  f),  and  the  resultant  of  a 
combination  of  gases  is  also  in  a  simple  relation  with 
the  sum  of  the  components. 

For  the  interpretation  of  these  facts  we  must 
remember  the  true  concept  of  matter  and  that  of  the 
constitution  of  bodies  in  general,  without  forgetting 
principally  the  influence  of  the  universal  means — im- 
ponderable matter  or  progene.     We  must  not  admit  in 


f 


our  reasonings  the  intervention  of  imaginary  molecular 
forces,  nor  of  other  actions  at  a  distance. 

The  relations  of  volumes  before  expressed  show  us 
that  gaseous  bodies  have  their  particles  distributed  with 
regularity,  and  that  they  can  be  considerably  separated 
from  one   another   in    comparison    with    their   volume. 
Therefore  the  energy  of  progene  among  the  minimum 
particles  must  be  equal  throughout  when  the  gas  does 
not  experience  any  change  either   of   temperature  or 
pressure,  for  progene  being  free,  any  change  of  tempera- 
ture will  be   propagated    through    it   to    re-establish  a 
uniform    equilibrium.      Thus,    for    instance,    when    the 
capacity  of  the  vessel  which  contains  a  gas  is  reduced, 
the  pressure  will  increase  first  on  the  particles  nearer 
the  walls  of  the  vessel,  and  will  be  at  once  transmitted 
by  means  of  progene  as  far  as  the  most  distant  ones  ; 
so  the  volume  of  the  gas  will  be  reduced  with  sensible 
equality  in  all  its  parts.     When  a  gas  is  heated,  pro- 
genic    energy   is   propagated    to   it  ;    the    increase    of 
energy  may  be  only  in  the  velocity  of  its  oscillations,  or 
in  its  amplitude  ;  the  former  occurs  when  a  gas  is  com- 
pletely enclosed  in  a  constant  volume,  and  the  latter 
when  the  pressure  limiting   the  gas  is  constantly  the 
same — that  is,  when  the  gas  can  freely  expand  accord- 
ing as  it  is  heated.      From   this   it  results  that  every 
gas    must   have   its   particles  —  atoms  —  more   or   less 
separated    in   relation    with   the   temperature   and    the 
pressure,  the  intervals  being  equal  in  all  parts  of  the 
same  gas  if  they  are  submitted  to  the  same  conditions 
of  temperature  and  pressure ;  but  the  intervals  must  be 
different  according  to  the  volume  of  the  minimum  par- 
ticles  of  every   gas,    because    the   greater   the   atomic 
matter  the  greater  must  also  be  the  quantity  of  progene, 


212 


K   INORGANIC  BODIES, 


43.  RECAPITULATION, 


213 


nearly  in  the  relation  of  i  :  2.  This  is  inferred  from 
the  46  per  cent,  loss  of  force  in  movement,  that  is  to 
say,  the  volume  of  interatomic  progene  of  a  gas  neces- 
sary to  equilibrate  atomic  gravitation  must  be  almost 
twice  as  much — vg2 — as  that  of  atoms. 

This  idea  is  contrary  to  that  enunciated  in  the  hypo- 
thesis of  Avogadro,  which  is  that  equal  volumes  of  gases 
or  vapour  contain  the  same  number  of  molecules  ;  but 
we  must  remark  that  Avogadro  called  molecule  a  por- 
tion of  any  gas  enclosed  in  a  volume  always  the  same 
for  all  gases.  We  see  that  this,  rightly  interpreted,  is 
merely  a  tautological  explanation  of  the  laws  of  Boyle 
and  Mariotte,  the  same  idea  defined  with  synonymous 
^vords— that  is,  that  all  gases  occupy  the  same  volume 
under  the  same  pressure  and  temperature.  This  tells 
us  nothing  of  the  proportion  of  ponderable  and  im- 
ponderable matter  in  the  constitution  of  bodies  ;  still 
less  does  it  take  into  account  the  porocules  which  con- 
tain the  interstitial  progene,  and  that  form  part  of  the 
volume  called  by  chemists  atomic  and  molecular. 

The  adoption  of  atomic  weights  is  also  a  conclusion 
contrary  to  the  said  hypothesis,  for  there  is  no  exact 
proportion  between  atomic  weights  and  the  density  of 
vapours  and  gaseous  bodies,  as  is  clearly  seen  with 
mercury,  phosphorus,  arsenic,  and  sulphur. 

Spectral  analysis  has  given  us  great  knowledge,  and 
will  give  us  still  more,  on  the  intimate  constitution  of 
bodies — that  is,  on  the  arran-gement  of  the  particles  in 
the  different  states,  distinguishing  the  molecules  from 
the  hydrocules  and  orocules,  and  thus  also  differen- 
tiating the  ponderable  particles  from  the  imponderable 
ether  or  progene  existing  among  the  said  particles. 

In  order  to  interpret  correctly  spectroscopic  facts,  it 


is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  corporeal  particles, 
being  ponderable,  must  suffer  a  continual  loss  of  living 
force,  so  that  any  of  their  movements  must  be  arrested 
soon  after  the  action  of  impulsive  force  has  ceased  ;  and 
this  affirmation  is  also  applicable  to  vibratory  move- 
ments, however  minute  or  invisible. 

Therefore  the  interpretation  of  light  and  spectrum 
according  to  the  kinetic  hypothesis  of  molecular  vibra- 
tions, is  wholly  erroneous.  In  our  real  or  practical 
reflections  we  can  subtract  imponderable  matter  alone 
from  the  action  of  gravity,  as  this  is  the  only  substance 
capable  of  keeping  in  movement  when  ponderable 
matter  is  not  opposed  to  it. 

Great  differences  exist  in  the  intimate  constitution  of 
gases,  liquids,  and  solids.  In  liquids  the  molecules  are 
not  completely  isolated  from  one  another— they  are 
grouped  in  series  of  twos,  so  forming  hydrocules  ;  and 
in  solids  the  hydrocules  are  grouped  in  indefinite  num- 
bers, forming  series  of  cells  called  orocules,  which,  when 
arranged  with  harmony,  symmetry,  or  regular  propor- 
tions, constitute  crystalloid  bodies. 


214 


VI.    ORGANIC  BODIES. 


44.   GENERALITIES. 


215 


CHAPTER   VI. 

CONCEPT  OF  ORGANIC  BODIES  :  SOLIDS  AND  FLUIDS 
TOGETHER,  ESPECIALLY  IN  THE  FORMATION  OF 
THE  HIGHLY  COMPLEX  STRUCTURES  CALLED 
LIVING  MATTER. 

§  44.  General  idea  of  organic  structures  (chemical  and  morphologic 
characters) — §  45.  General  idea  of  organic  functions — §  46.  General 
idea  of  organic  generation  (cellular  multiplication) — §  47.  Brief  idea  of 
nutrition  in  particular — §  48.  Classification  of  vital  functions — §  49. 
Cause  of  vitality — §  50.  Recapitulation  of  the  concept  of  living  matter. 

§   44.   General    Idea    of    Organic    Structures. 
(Chemical  and  Morphological  Characters). 

The  substances  for  the  formation  or  elaboration  of 
organic  structures  are  of  two  kinds — ponderable  and 
imponderable  ;  the  earth  and  atmosphere  supply  ponder- 
able substances,  and  the  rays  of  light  supply  the 
imponderable  metafluid  or  progene. 

From  the  chemical  analysis  of  inorganic  bodies  (the 
ovule  and  its  derived  organic  elements)  four  simple 
elements  principally  result — carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
and  nitrogen — which  combined  with  very  small  pro- 
portions of  other  elements  (sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine, 
sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  iron)  form  chemical 
species  of  definite  composition  called  immediate  prin- 


ciples. These  may  be  separated  and  distinguished  from 
one  another  by  molar  division  without  the  necessity  of 
subjecting  the  whole  living  body  to  chemical  analysis. 

Particular  attention  must  be  called  to  the  fact  that 
all  the  immediate  principles  of  organism  are  compounds 
of  carbon— a  fixed  solid,  perhaps  the  most  perfect  in  its 
solidity— and  of  the  gases  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen,  which  are  the  only  ones  that  can  be  called 
perfect  in  their  gaseous  state.  This  condition,  being  so 
general  in  organic  constitution,  must  be  very  important, 
although  its  object  is  as  yet  unknown  to  us. 

There  is  no   organic   structure  which    may  not   be 
divided  simply  by  molar  action  into  different  chemical 
species,  most  of  which  are  ternary  and  quaternary  com- 
pounds  of  carbon  and   are  ordinarily  called  immediate 
principles.     These  are  considered  by  most  authors   as 
••  organic  matter,"  but  we  have  avoided  using  this  phrase 
with  such  a  meaning  on  account  of  the  vague  and  erro- 
neous concepts  that  have  been  attributed  to  it ;  to-day 
there   is   an   imperious  necessity    of  unifying   concrete 
chemistry  instead  of  dividing  it  into  inorganic  and  organic. 
We  have  reserved  the  word  organic  for  the  structure  of 
living  matter,  or  of  dead  organism  while  the   body  still 
preserves  the  same  somatic  appearance  as  it  did  in  life, 
that  is,  for  the  complex  material  which  can  be  elaborated 
only  by  organism— protoplasm,  cellules,  and  their  derived 
anatomic  elements. 

Living  matter  is  chemically  constituted  by  the  union 
of  simple  and  compound  bodies  which  may  be  classified 
into  four  groups— monary,  binary,  ternary,  and  quater- 
nary ;  and  although  some  have  more  than  the  four  ele- 
ments in  combination,  they  may  also  be  comprehended 
as  quaternary.     A  few  gases,  as  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 


*Sv5, 


2l6 


VI.    ORGANIC  BODIES. 


44.   GENERALITIES. 


217 


hydrogen,  are  found  in  a  simple  state  of  dissolution  in 
the  liquids  of  organism. 

The  union  of  such  chemical  species  in  organism  is 
not  a  fixed  or  definite  combination  but  an  indefinite, 
variable  mixture  forming  highly  complex  structures 
whose  anatomical  synthesis  is  of  more  importance  to  us 
than  their  chemical  one.  Anatomical  elements  may  be 
considered  either  as  isolated  or  united,  the  last  forming 
the  organic  tissues  and  the  constituent  liquids  of  living 
bodies.  The  abstract  conception  of  the  ultimate  living 
elements  is  called  cellule,  and  the  smallest  microscopic 
parts  resulting  from  the  anatomical  division  of  the  most 
complex  organism  are  cellules  or  derived  from  cellules. 
Thus,  the  human  germ  or  ovule  is  a  typical  cellule  of  the 
most  complicated  constitution,  composed  of  protoplasm 
contained  in  a  closed,  round,  minute  vesicle  or  bag 
formed  by  a  membrane  of  uniform  appearance — cell- 
wall  ;  enclosed  in  the  protoplasm  is  a  round  or  oval 
nucleus  standing  either  in  the  centre  or  near  the  cell- 
wall.  The  protoplasm  constitutes  the  total  contents  of 
the  cellule  with  the  exception  of  the  nucleus ;  its  cha- 
racteristic marks  vary  considerably  in  every  kind  of 
element,  but  it  is  always  composed  of  a  nitrogenized 
substance  which  is  of  a  very  complicated  structure 
though  at  first  sight  it  appears  to  be  a  uniform  viteline 
mass.  The  protoplasm  and  nucleus  have  been  objects 
of  microscopic  details  which  are,  however,  of  no  great 
consequence,  because  no  conclusion  of  functional  interest 
is  drawn  from  them ;  we  need  only  know  that  the 
nucleus,  like  the  protoplasm,  when  very  young,  has  no 
membrane  around  it,  though  frequently  one  appears 
later  on.  We  must  also  remark  that  some  cellules  lack 
a  nucleus,  while  others,  on  the  contrary,  have  many.     Of 


I 


all  the  parts  of  organic  cells  the  constant  and  primary 
one  is  the  protoplasm  ;  the  vesicular  bag  called  mem- 
brane or  cell-wall  is  often  wanting,  and  is  considered  as 
a  simple  condensation  of  the  most  peripheric  part  of  the 
protoplasm.  Most  embryos  (animal  and  plant)  are  in 
their  first  stage  perfectly  simple  and  uniform  granular 
globules  of  protoplasmatic  mass,  but  in  their  develop- 
ment, usually  after  a  prodigious  reproduction,  they  keep 
in  some  cases  the  form  of  cells,  either  free,  one  cell  being 
separated  from  another  by  liquids,  or  grouped  together, 
acquiring  a  solid  consistency,  while  in  other  cases 
anatomic  elements  are  so  changed  in  form  that  they  can 
only  be  known  as  derived  elements  by  observing  their 
successive  transformations. 

The  organisms  developed  in  some  degree  have  not 
only  corpuscular  constituents  but  also  formless  materials 
called  extra-cellular  or  inter-cellular.  These  amorph 
substances  are  liquid  and  solid,  and  form  an  atmosphere 
for  all  the  organic  corpuscles.  The  function  of  such 
substances  is  not  yet  well  known  ;  they  seem  to  act  as 
an  internal  medium  in  which  there  are  no  changes  other 
than  those  derived  from  the  material  circulation  of  the 
anatomic  elements.  In  solid  intercellular  substances  a 
great  distinction  is  made  between  those  of  uniform 
appearance,  and  those  formed  by  the  juxtaposition  of 
heterogeneous  parts  ;  these  last  may  be  classed  into  four 
kinds  in  relation  with  their  chemical  constitution- 
gelatinous,  elastic,  cartilaginous,  and  calcareous.  In 
addition  to  these  four  solid  intercellular  substances,  there 
is  one  semi-liquid  between  the  embryonic  cells  of 
connective  tissues,  and  another  liquid  which  usually 
constitutes  the  extra-cellular  substance  of  the  circulating 
liquids   of  organism    (blood,    lymph,   and    chyle),    and 


V 


2l8 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES. 


44.    GENERALITIES. 


219 


which  by  some  histologists  is  also  supposed  to  be  in  the 
interstices  of  solid  tissues  where  it  is  called  interstitial 
juice  or  blastema.  We  need  not  pay  any  attention  to 
the  characters  of  these  different  parts,  because  they 
are  not  general  objects,  but  only  special  to  very  well 
developed  beings. 

The  word  "  organism  "  signifies  the  existence  of  parts 
dissimilar  in  structural  character  acting  in  harmony  and 
definite  succession,  with  multiplication  of  living  beings  ; 
and  the  phrase  "  organic  matter "  signifies,  not  only 
organisms,  but  also  dead  bodies  which  yet  preserve  the 
morphological  characters  which  they  had  during  life, 
though  having  already  lost  living  energy.  So  organic 
matter  may  be  either  living  or  dead,  and  we  exclude 
from  this  the  material  resulting  from  its  division  by 
decomposition  which  has  already  lost  the  structural 
appearance  of  living  bodies  and  corpuscles.  It  is  never- 
theless impossible  to  determine  any  graphic  character 
as  specific  to  all  organic  matter,  though  this  has  been 
attempted  in  most  works  on  Natural  History,  in  which 
a  pretence  is  also  made  of  establishing  many  phe- 
nomenal differences  between  living  bodies  or  organisms 
and  non-living  bodies ;  we  here  anticipate  the  fact  that 
there  is  in  truth  only  one  characteristic  difference,  and 
that  is  the  reproduction  or  multiplication  which  com- 
pensates the  constant  loss  of  living  force  in  the 
mechanism  of  the  world. 

Most  organisms,  in  their  origin  or  ovular  state,  are 
minute  globules  essentially  formed,  as  before  stated,  of 
a  highly  complex  organized  substance  called  proto- 
plasm, which  is  usually  enveloped  in  a  membrane  called 
cellular,  and  ordinarily  contains  a  condensed  nucleus. 
There  are  many  living  bodies  whose  constant  state  is 


the  globular,  called  also  cellular:  such  are  many 
microscopic  unicellular  organisms;  but  most  living 
bodies  (those  which  are  seen  by  the  naked  eye)  grow  by 
a  cellular  multiplication,  the  numerous  cellules  being 
developed  and  arranged  in  marvellous  order,  forming  a 
multicellular  organism.  In  some  of  these  the  cellules  lose 
their  primitive  globular  form  and  take  fibrous,  tubular, 
and  membraneous  forms  ;  others  form  a  substance  of 
uniform  appearance  separating  the  cellules  more  or  less 
from  one  another,  being  called  for  this  reason  inter- 
cellular substance,  which,  as  we  have  already  said,  may 
be  either  solid  or  liquid,  in  the  first  case  forming  tissues, 
and  in  the  second  the  constituent  liquids  of  organism. 

The  unicellular  organisms,  and  even  many  which  are 
multicellular,  are  in  all  their  parts  in  direct  interaction 
with  the  inorganic  world,  so  that  the  material  change 
between  the  cells  and  the  cosmic  medium  is  immediate  ; 
but  most  living  beings  are  formed  in  such  a  manner  that 
all  the  elements  cannot  be  directly  in  mutual  action  with 
the  external  world,  and  many  of  them  interact  only  with 
some  other  constituents  which  may  be  called  their 
internal  medium.  The  former  elements  are  those  which 
constitute  the  prosenchyma  (tegumentary  and  glandular 
epithelium),  and  the  latter  are  those  which  constitute  the 
parenchyma.  In  the  latter  are  the  circulating  elements 
(as  blood,  lymph),  which  establish  their  molecular  inter- 
change directly  with  the  superficial  elements,  being 
besides  the  intermediary  elements  for  the  molecular 
changes  of  the  fixed  elements  of  the  parenchyma  among 
themselves  and  with  those  of  the  prosenchyma.  The 
stationary  (non-circulating)  elements  of  the  parenchyma 
are  connective  and  cardinal,  the  last  comprehending 
those  which  are  nervous  and  muscular. 


220 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES. 


4$.   FUNCTIONS  OF   VITALITY. 


221 


We  have  enumerated  five  species  of  elements,  namely, 
epithelial,  circulating,  connective,  muscular,  and  nervous  ; 
every  one  of  these  characterizes  a  class  of  elemental 
organs,  and  all  are  in  perfect  correlation  with  as  many 
forms  of  functional  activity,  which  are  :  (i)  the  epithelial 
organs  (including  the  glandular)  are  especially  engaged 
in  the  work  of  introducing  material  into,  and  eliminating 
it  from  the  living  economy;  (2)  the  circulating  organs 
engaged  in  the  molar  interchange  among  the  separate 
parts  of  the  economy  ;  (3)  the  connective  organs  which, 
besides  their  conjunctive  use,  are  the  most  fertile  for 
the  regeneration  of  most  of  the  other  elements  ;  (4)  the 
muscular  organs  which  are  engaged  in  the  molar  work 
of  contraction  ;  and  (5)  the  nervous  organs  which  are 
the  progenic  transmittors  for  the  sensations,  and  for  the 
order  of  the  movements  the  body  must  execute. 

§  45.  General  Idea  of  Organic  Functions. 

The  interactions  of  living  bodies  (as  of  any  object 
whatever)  are  of  two  kinds,  intrinsic  and  extrinsic ;  in 
the  former  the  antecedent  and  consequent  of  the  action 
are  within  the  individual,  they  being  then  called  intran- 
sitive;  while  in  the  latter  one  of  the  terms  is  within  the 
individuality,  and  the  other  is  without  in  the  cosmic 
medium,  such  interactions  being  called  transitive.  The 
transference  of  one  kind  into  another  is  simply  by 
propagation.  Intrinsic  as  well  as  extrinsic  interactions 
may  be  either  imponderable  (progenic),  or  ponderable 
(molar  and  molecular) ;  and  in  the  progenic  we  make 
the  distinction  of  phenomenal  and  potential  according 
as  the  changes  are  manifested  or  latent.  We  always 
employ  the  term  potential,  not  as  the  opposite  of  actual 


or  active,  but  according  to  the  capacity  of  our  percep- 
tion or  consciousness  of  physiological  propagation  ;  iu 
like  manner  the  term  intransitive  is  also  relative  in 
reference  to  a  part  of  the  system  which  we  can  imagine 
separate  from  the  rest  only  by  mental  abstraction. 

We  must  not  forget  that  when  progenic  activity  is 
directly   propagated   through    interstitial    progene,    the 
changes  we  have  called  progenic  result,  which  generally 
produce  in  bodies  expansive  actions  apparently  repulsive 
(as  thermic,  sonorous,  and  luminous  propagations),  and 
when,  on  the  contrary,  progenic  action  is  directly  propa- 
gated to  the  ponderable  matter  of  another  body,and  when 
interstellar  progene  collides  with  bodies,  a  contracting 
action    results ;   such  are  the  effects  of  molecular   and 
molar  changes  which  appear  to  be  produced  by  attrac- 
tion, gravitation  (in  its  different  forms  as  cohesion  and 
affinity),  and  magnetism.     Thus,  then,  progenic  proga- 
gations,  through  bodies,  produce  the  effect  of  dispersion 
among   the   molecules,  while   the  effect  of  ponderable 
transference  of  progene  is  compressive.    If  these  different 
classes  of  changes  or  energies  exist  in  cosmos  in  general, 
and  in  organism  in  particular,  forming  a  synthesis,  any 
phenomenon  whatever,  either  in  cosmos  or  in  a  living 
being,  is  the  result  of  the  contrary  operations  of  the  two 
forms  of  progenic  propagation  now  mentioned.     Thus, 
for  instance,  a  potential  change  like  the  progenic  trans- 
mission   of     electricity    and    what     physiologists    call 
automatic  and  nervous  action,  may  be  a  virtual  result 
of  the   phenomenal    movements   of  sound,  heat,  light, 
cohesion,  affinity,  gravity,  magnetism,  etc. 

The  first  agent  we  know  in  the  sphere  of  physio- 
logical actions  is  already  a  secondary  one ;  this  agent 
is  progene  in  movement  under  its  two  forms,  oscillatory 


\ 


222 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES. 


45.   FUNCTIONS  OF   VITALITY. 


223 


and  translatory,  and  these  movements,  when  communi- 
cated to  ponderable  matter,  produce  the  apparent  effects 
of  attraction  and  repulsion  which  we  have  called  gravi- 
tating and  thermic  energies.  This  occurs  in  the  same 
manner  in  living  as  in  dead  matter.  Then,  translatory 
movement,  being  implied  in  phenomena,  having  the 
appearance  of  molecular  attraction,  as  cohesion,  affinity, 
and  gravity,  necessarily  supposes  the  current  action  of 
progene,  while  the  oscillatory  movement  of  progene, 
which  causes  heat,  must  be  the  immediate  origin  of  all 
phenomena  having  the  appearance  of  molecular  repul- 
sion. There  are,  besides,  phenomena  called  magnetic, 
which  have  the  appearance  of  molar  attraction  and 
repulsion ;  these  must  necessarily  be  determined  by 
translatory  movement  of  progene,  and  must  therefore 
be  considered  as  effects  of  progenic  potence  in  all 
nature,  in  the  inorganic  as  well  as  in  the  organic  world. 

The  physiological  synthesis  of  organism  cannot 
have  a  perfectly  developed  theory,  so  long  as  it  cannot 
mathematically  explain  the  changes  of  propagation  and 
transferences  which  are  combined  in  vitality.  When 
can  this  point  be  reached  which  must  be  the  beacon  of 
the  physiologists  of  the  future  ?  That  we  cannot  calcu- 
late, because  a  great  analytical  difficulty  is  yet  to  be 
overcome,  which  now  only  allows  us  to  make  a  very 
defective  study  of  physiological  synthesis.  The  mole- 
cular movements  of  chemical  metamorphoses  and  pro- 
genic movements  are  not  yet  measured  either  directly 
or  with  precision,  as  are  those  of  the  steam  engine  ; 
hence  arises  the  lack  of  fundamental  knowledge  of 
necessary  data  to  experiment  on  the  transferences  of 
the  different  forms  of  energy  in  cosmos,  and  especially 

The  work  is  as   yet   scarcely  begun    in 


m   organism 


) 


physiological  analysis,  and  until  the  knowledge  of 
cosmos  is  analytically  complete,  we  cannot  take  one 
secure  step  in  its  synthesis.  Nevertheless,  experience 
has  begun  to  prepare  the  field  with  what  is  called 
Chemical  Synthesis. 

There  is  a  material  circulation  in  organism  by  which 
constant  renovation  of  its  constituent  elements  is  pro- 
duced, because  in  organized  bodies  there  is  a  constant 
absorption  and  elimination  of  their  component  sub- 
stances. To  accomplish  this  many  chemical  reactions 
take  place  in  organism,  their  result  being  the  oxidation 
(decomposition)  of  the  complex  principles  constantly 
elaborated  by  the  vegetable  world,  and  in  this  manner 
the  substances  and  heat  needed  by  the  vegetable  king- 
dom for  its  growth  are  returned  to  the  inorganic  world. 
This  material  circulation  in  all  living  things  is  only  a 
continuation  of  the  generating  power — the  permanent 
and  superior  function  of  living  matter  ;  all  other  func- 
tions of  vitality  are  but  modes  of  the  great  original 
function — generation.  This,  then,  is  at  bottom  the  first 
of  all  physiological  operations ;  such  an  organizing 
power  acts  continuously  in  organic  beings  during  all 
their  development,  although  its  effects  gradually  de- 
crease from  the  beginning  to  the  end.  Generation 
presupposes  the  fecundation  of  a  generating  element 
and  the  conception  within  it.  Thus,  any  cellule  feels 
the  impression  of  the  medium  which  surrounds  it,  and 
this  excitement  is  its  fecundation  which  incites  such 
morphologic  element  to  a  vital  evolution  in  itself.  The 
cause  of  this  capacity  is  supernatural,  that  is,  beyond 
what  mechanism  can  accomplish,  as  in  this  only  propa- 
gated effects  are  produced. 

All  living  bodies,  without  exception,  are  subject  to  a 


224 


VI,   ORGANIC  BODIES, 


45.    FUNCTIONS  OF  VITALITY. 


225 


limited  existence,  during  which  they  undergo  continuous 
changes  which  determine  successive  phases  according 
to  their  ages ;  every  organism  is  born  by  excision  of 
its  germinal  being,  develops  like  its  originators,  and 
ends  its  evolution  only  with  death,  which  means  lack  of 
engendering  energy,  followed  by  decomposition  into 
inorganic  matter. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  has  apparently  no  other 
manifestations  of  vitality  than  material  circulation 
(nutrition)  and  reproduction  ;  but  in  the  animal  king- 
dom, especially  among  the  larger  animals,  the  living 
force  is  well  manifested  in  some  other  ways,  in  order  to 
accomplish  its  great  necessities,  which  are  the  establish- 
ment of  the  mutual  connections  of  their  parts  among 
themselves  and  with  the  world,  and  especially  for  their 
molar  movements  or  muscular  work.  These  two  last 
manifestations  of  vitality,  innervation  and  contractility, 
have  been  considered  peculiar  to  animals,  and  qualified 
by  the  determination  of  animal  functions  or  animal  life, 
in  an  attempt  to  differentiate  them  from  vegetative 
functions  or  vegetable  life — reproduction  and  nutrition. 
But,  in  fact,  sensibility  and  contractility  are  also  func- 
tions common  to  all  organism,  and  are  clearly  mani- 
fested even  in  vegetable  germs.  Nevertheless,  these 
functions  are  not  practically  worthy  of  special  mention 
here,  because  they  are  only  well  developed  in  animals  of 
most  remarkable  complexity. 

The  first  and  most  important  fact  of  the  elaboration 
of  immediate  principles  occurs  chiefly  in  vegetables 
whose  leaves  and  green  parts,  containing  chlorophyl 
(green  colouring  matter),  may  appropriate  the  progene 
necessary  to  produce  a  chemical  reaction  between  car- 
bonic acid  and  water  in  order  to  form  hydro-carburets 


and  eliminate  oxygen.  Rays  of  light  are  also  neces- 
sary for  the  successive  reactions  of  organism,  among 
which  the  most  important  is  dishydratation  (elimination 
of  water  from  a  combination).  In  organism  there  are 
not  only  reactions  with  absorption  of  heat,  or  endo- 
thermic  reactions,  but  there  are  also  exothermic  re- 
actions, in  which  there  is  elimination  of  heat  and  car- 
bonic acid  with  absorption  of  oxygen.  These  last 
combinations  occur  in  living  matter  which  lacks  chlo- 
rophyl (or  any  other  colouring  structures),  and  also 
in  all  organisms  when  not  under  the  action  of  sunlight ; 
they  are  necessary  for  calorific  reparation  in  organism, 
and  for  the  compensation  of  other  losses  of  living  force 
which  are  continually  dissipated  in  the  works  of  cosmic 
mechanism.  So  during  the  night  all  living  bodies, 
whatever  their  colour  and  class,  exhale  the  products  of 
exothermic  reactions,  while  during  the  day  there  is  an 
excess  of  endothermic  combinations,  or  chemical  re- 
duction in  the  green  vegetation  which  contains  chlo- 
rophyl. Inferior  microscopic  organisms  also  assist  the 
vegetable  kingdom  in  its  work  of  organic  formation, 
especially  in  the  elaboration  of  nitrogenous  principles. 
Chemical  reaction  of  animal  life  is  a  kind  of  oxidation 
which  ends  in  the  destruction  of  organic  matter,  thus 
providing  the  heat  and  movement  necessary  for  the 
play  of  their  own  mechanism  and  that  of  the  world  in 
general.  The  constituent  substances  of  organism,  pro- 
gene  included,  are  in  this  manner  in  constant  circula- 
tion, being  taken  from  inorganic  means  by  the  vege- 
table world  and  restored  to  that  cosmic  means  by 
animal  life. 

We  have  said  that  the  living   elements  (cells  and 
their    morphologic    derivatives)    are    characterized    by 


iSai^^^Mg^^M 


1 


226 


VI.     ORGANIC  BODIES. 


45.    FUNCTIONS  OF  VITALITY. 


227 


eSc 


W' 


their  texture,  and  we  will  now  see  that  the  function 
of  the  elements  is  correlative  with  their  texture,  and 
that  in  this  agreement  exists  the  culminant  reason  for 
the  classification  of  the  anatomic  elements  and  organic 
systems.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  though  every 
one  of  these  organic  systems  is  characterized  by  special 
activity,  this  does  not  mean  that  every  change  of 
vitality  is  exclusively  produced  by  a  determined  ele- 
mental structure ;  on  the  contrary,  all  the  organic 
changes  take  place  in  all  and  every  one  of  the  ana- 
tomic elements  (cellules)  ;  they  all  accomplish  the  acts 
of  nutrition  ;  they  all  feel  in  their  own  way  and  are 
more  or  less  contractile ;  but  there  is  a  great  difference 
in  the  relative  intensity  of  the  changes  of  every  ele- 
ment, and  some  elements  are  infiltrated  with  inorganic 
substances  so  as  to  become  useless  for  all  vital  changes 
in  general  and  for  nutrition  in  particular.  Thus,  also, 
some  elements  are  permanent,  living  as  long  as  the 
whole  individual,  and  such  elements  lose  with  age  their 
genesic  power,  becoming  sterile  like  old  people  and 
old  animals.  Only  the  very  young  elements  are  fertile, 
and  these  exist  in  all  ages  of  organism,  because  some 
cellules  are  very  frequently  regenerated  by  multiplica- 
tion and  have  a  shorter  life  than  the  whole  being.  So 
there  are  fertile  and  sterile  elements :  thus  all  the  mus- 
cular and  nervous  fibro-cells  are  sterile,  while  on  the 
contrary  the  young  layers  of  epithelium,  and  the  cells 
of  connective  tissues  are  very  fertile. 

On  the  other  hand,  no  element  develops  its  activity 
in  a  great  degree  in  all  forms  of  vital  action  ;  according 
as  one  form  increases  the  others  decrease,  and  some 
pass  to  a  rudimentary  state,  becoming  almost  inorganic. 
The  elements  which  preserve  vital  activity  are  of  two 


< 


J 


kinds  :  one  preserves  the  primordial  activity  which  is 
called  vegetative,  that  is,  simply  the  changes  of  circula- 
tion of  matter  (reproduction  and  nutrition) ;  the  other 
changes  the  form  and  the  activity  very  much,  acquiring 
in  complete  development  the  functions  which  are  not 
developed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  (innervation  and 
contraction).  The  four  are  common  to  all  living  matter, 
but  the  former  being  almost  the  only  form  of  activity  of 
the  plant  cell  are  called  vegetable  systems^  while  the 
latter,  being  remarkably  developed  in  some  of  the 
animal  cells,  are  called  animal  systems.  We  have 
already  called  attention  to  the  relative  signification  of 
these  terms. 

In  complex  organisms  every  anatomic  element 
(cellule)  produces  its  material  change  in  harmony  with 
its  organization,  and  manifests  some  peculiar  form  of 
activity  which  is  always  derived  from  engendering 
potence  ;  but  no  element  is  independent ;  all  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  organic  system  of  the  individual  whole  ; 
every  element  is  complementary  to  all  the  others,  so 
constituting  a  being  which  is  also  a  partial  system  and 
not  an  independent  thing ;  hence,  one  living  being  is 
in  interaction  with  all  the  others  which  compose  its 
external  medium,  and  every  part  of  a  being  is  also  in 
interaction  with  the  rest  which  acts  like  an  internal 
medium.  In  consequence  of  this,  animal  blood  and 
the  sap  of  plants  are  not  the  only  internal  mediums, 
for  every  cell  has  around  it  the  immediate  medium  for 
its  interchanges,  and  the  distant  elements  serve  also  as 
internal  mediums,  though  in  a  mediate  or  indirect 
manner.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  said  that  the  circu- 
lating and  nervous  apparati  are  principally  the  internal 
medium,  the   one  serving   for  molar   or   bodily  trans- 


1 


228 


VI.    ORGANIC  BODIES, 


46.     GENERATION. 


229 


portation  and  the  other  for  progenia  transmission  ;  both 
determine  acts  whose  final  aim  in  the  individual  is 
general  to  it,  as  they  are  the  common  and  mutual  inter- 
mediary parts  of  all  the  parenchyma,  and  form  the 
means  whereby  the  distant  interchanges  between  the 
other  internal  elements  and  the  prosenchyma  are  pro- 
duced. This  last  is  the  external  intermedium,  although 
like  the  parenchyma  it  needs  besides  interchange  with 
the  internal  mediums — circulating  and  nervous  comple- 
ments. 

Two  interstitial  changes  are  common  to  both 
parenchyma  and  prosenchyma  which  consist  in:  (i) 
assimilating  from  the  interstitial  transudation  of  the 
circulating  apparatus  the  necessary  principle  for  the  vital 
evolution  of  the  elements,  and  transforming  the  assimi- 
lated material  into  its  own  substance  ;  and  (2)  disas- 
similating  the  constituent  substances  by  a  gradual 
oxidation,  that  is,  by  a  kind  of  combustion  producing 
living  force  manifested  as  heat,  muscular  contraction, 
etc.,  or  transferred  into  nervous  current.  Afterwards, 
for  the  elimination  of  the  products  that  result  from  the 
said  oxidation,  they  must  be  dissolved  in  the  inter- 
stitial juices  in  order  to  enter  the  circulating  system. 

The  changes  of  the  prosenchyma  that  are  said 
to  take  place  exclusively  in  the  periphery  of  the 
body  and  in  the  cavities  visibly  open  to  the  outside, 
are  not  special  ;  they  are  similar  to  those  in  the  paren- 
chyma ;  but  it  may  be  said  that  the  external  changes 
of  the  tegumentary  and  glandular  systems  are  generally 
reduced  to  two  kinds  of  operations  :  osmos  (exosmos 
and  endosmos)  and  genesis.  Both  are  really  similar  to 
the  nutritive  changes  that  take  place  in  the  interstices  ; 
the  osmos  may  be  either  gaseous  or  liquid,  this  last 


./ 


containing  substances  in  solution,  and  it  may  also  be 
endosmotic  or  exosmotic,  the  former  consisting  in 
greater  absorption  than  elimination  and  the  latter  in  the 
reverse.  The  principal  genesic  external  changes  are 
those  of  the  special  organs  for  the  reproduction  of 
individuals  in  which  the  elimination  is  not  only  of 
liquids  but  also  of  cellular  elements.  We  have  here 
mentioned  four  forms  of  external  changes  :  (i)  gaseous 
osmos  or  respiration  ;  (2)  liquid  endosmos ;  intussus- 
ception or  absorption  ;  (3)  liquid  exosmos  :  elimina- 
tion ;  and  (4)  cellular  secretion,  the  elements  of  which 
may  be  either  fertile  or  sterile,  in  the  last  case  there 
is  epithelial  renovation.  In  addition  to  these  there 
is  another  form  of  external  change,  that  of  imponder- 
able or  progenia  interchange  which  consists  principally 
in  the  absorption  of  light  and  the  elimination  of  heat 
by  radiation  and  conduction. 

§  46.  General  Idea  of  Organic  Generation. 

All  living  bodies,  elemental  as  well  as  complex, 
have  a  fixed  determined  evolution  ;  all  are  at  the  be- 
ginning a  unicellular  germ  of  the  same  species,  and 
every  one  of  the  anatomical  elements  of  our  organism 
must,  like  its  totality,  be  engendered  by  parents  ;  not 
one  can  be  formed  by  the  direct  union  of  inorganic 
matter  outside  of  an  organic  field  :  "  omne  vivum  ex 
ovo "  :  ** oinnis  cellula  a  celliila'^ 

Genesis  must  be  studied  in  the  species  and  in  the 
elements  ;  the  former  is  the  individual  or  total  repro- 
duction (integral  genesis) ;  and  the  latter  is  the  partial 
evolution  of  every  one  of  the  living  constituents  of  an 
individual    (elemental  genesis).     From   this   arises  our 


230 


VI.     ORGANIC  BODIES. 


distinction  between  integral  and  elemental  genesis  ;  but 
this  being  here  only  the  subject  of  generalities,  each  part 
does  not  need  separate  treatment. 

Genesic  evolution  in  general  has  three  periods:  (i) 
birth,  molar  change  consisting  in  the  excision  or  multi- 
plication of  living  elements ;  (2)  development,  which, 
applied  to  the  elements  alone,  is  a  molecular  change 
consisting  in  the  thermochemic  phenomenon  of  nutri- 
tion ;  and  (3)  regeneration  or  new  multiplication  of  the 
developed  element  in  order  to  give  place  to  those  which 
must  substitute  the  dying  cells.  These  three  subjects 
comprehended  in  genesic  evolution  (birth  by  repro- 
duction, development  by  nutrition  and  regeneration  by 
reproduction)  are  identical  in  fact,  and  it  would  be  a 
departure  from  the  natural  if  we  should  treat  of  the 
study  of  them  as  altogether  different  functions.  Develop- 
ment is  only  a  continuation  of  genesis  until  the  period 
of  the  decadence  of  life,  and  from  that  onward  the  only 
form  of  genesis  is  nutrition,  which  lasts  until  death. 
Nevertheless,  nutrition  is  considered  apart  from  genesis, 
and  will  form  the  special  topic  of  the  next  chapter, 
chiefly  because  it  is  the  most  important  function. 

We  must  now  criticize  the  theories  of  cellular  forma- 
tion which  describe  the  modalities  of  elemental  repro- 
duction. There  are  two  principal  ones  ;  the  first  originates 
in  the  so-called  German  school,  at  the  head  of  which  is 
Virchow,  and  the  other  is  the  French  school,  at  the  head 
of  which  is  Robin.  The  theory  held  by  the  first  school 
is  also  called  cellular,  and  that  held  by  the  second  sub- 
stitutive or  free  cellular  formation.  The  German  school 
maintains  that  intercellular  substances  are  always  pro- 
ducts of  cellular  secretion  or  a  modification  of  the 
peripheric  part  of  the  cells,  and  that  the  substance  thus 


46.     GENERATION. 


231 


*t 


produced  has  not  the  capacity  of  reproduction  ;  that  the 
blastema  (if  it  exists)  is  sterile  and  cannot  be  the  field 
for  the  formation  of  new  cells,  and  consequently  Virchow 
and  his  followers  admit  only  intracellular  genesis  ;  still 
more,  many  deny  the  existence  of  blastema.    According 
to  the  hypothesis  of  the  free  cellular  formation  the  first 
thing  that  may  appear  in  order  to  form  some  organic 
elements  is  a  blastema,  that   is,  an  amorph  substance 
in  which  the  constituent  parts  of  the  cellules  are  formed 
by  a  kind  of  crystallization  ;  that  is  to  say,  Robin  and 
his  followers  admit  not  only  genesis  by  intraformation, 
but    also   genesis   by  juxtaposition.     Robin    says   that 
blastemas  come  from  the  blood  and  are  not  completely 
homogeneous,  as,  he   says,   he   has   observed    in    them 
protoplasmatic   granulations,  and   frequently  cells   like 
leucocites  or  white  globules.     In  truth  the  juices  of  the 
parenchyma  are   not  well  known  although  they  must 
undoubtedly  exist,  and  we  can  only  suppose  that  they 
are  a  compound  of  blood  exudation  and  of  products 
from  the  surrounding  cells.     But  this  is  not  sufficient 
reason  for  affirming  that  there  are  organizing  substances 
outside  of  cellular  life  ;  that  the  elements  of  new  forma- 
tion or  granulations  are  formed  by  juxtaposition  and 
condensation  of  the  supposed  blastemas  or  citoblastemas. 
There  is  great  objection  to  such  an   idea,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  nutrition  (genesis  of  cellular  development) 
is  a  process   of  intussusception,  the   substances   being 
received   within   or    absorbed    by    the    cells    and    not 
juxtaposed  to   them.     In  order  to   overcome  such   an 
objection,  those  who  maintain  the  existence  of  blastema 
suppose  that  this  is  the  product  of  pre-existent  cells,  and 
therefore  that  the   new  ones    proceed   from    old   ones, 
though  by  indirect  reproduction,  and  that  such  inter- 


232 


VI.     ORGANIC  BODIES. 


46.     GENERATION. 


233 


mediary  blastema  may  engender  cellules  in  two  ways, 
first,  by  the  spontaneous  or  free  appearance  of  a  nucleus 
around  which  some  quantity  of  blastema  is  condensed 
in  a  less  degree  than  in  the  nucleus,  and,  second,  by  the 
division  of  a  free  mass  of  blastema  into  globules  in 
which  nuclei  are  afterwards  formed.  This  hypothesis 
of  substitution  is  now  upheld  by  very  few,  and  even 
these  only  admit  it  in  the  following  cases:  (i)  in  the 
formation  of  the  sexual  elements,  male  and  female  ;  (2) 
in  the  formation  of  the  first  embryonic  cells  ;  (3)  for  the 
generation  and  regeneration  of  epithelium  ;  and  (4)  in 
the  greatest  number  of  pathological  neoplasms. 

We  see  that  there  are  two  contrary  opinions  in 
regard  to  the  formation  and  functions  of  intercellular 
substances.  In  fact,  there  are  still  some  doubts  as  to 
the  predominant  source  of  such  substances,  whether 
they  are  principally  formed  by  the  cells  as  products  of 
secretion,  or  by  the  blood,  the  substances  of  assimilation 
then  predominating.  It  may  be  stated  with  great  likeli- 
hood of  truth  that  the  solid  intercellular  substance  is 
formed  by  the  nearest  cellules,  as  the  exudation  from 
the  blood-vessels  must  be  about  the  same  in  all  parts, 
and  the  chemical  and  morphological  constitution  of 
intercellular  matter  differs  according  to  the  proximate 
anatomical  elements,  and  it  has  been  sometimes  clearly 
seen  that  the  elastic  filaments  are  directly  formed  by 
cellular  metamorphosis  or  by  cellular  prolongations. 
Cellulists  assert  that  the  use  of  intercellular  substances  is 
purely  connective  ;  that  they  undergo  molecular  change, 
but  that  this  activity  depends  on  surrounding  cells,  and 
that  in  any  case  they  cannot  be  organizing  or  engender- 
ing fields.  Their  employment,  then,  is  reduced  to  that 
of  molar   supporters  for  the    union    and  separation  of 


*^i 


elements,  and  under  molecular  interchange  they  serve 
as  an  internal  medium  for  the  passage  of  matter  from 
the  blood-vessels  to  the  cellules  and  vice  versd. 

The  belief  in  the  free  formation  of  cells  in  the 
blastema  is  in  some  manner  coequal  with  that  of  the 
spontaneous  genesis  of  living  beings,  and  the  maintainers 
of  such  ideas  say  they  have  presented  experimental 
proofs  in  favour  of  their  opinion  ;  they  believe  in  the 
birth  of  inferior  organisms  in  a  liquid  in  which  no  such 
organisms  previously  existed,  and  they  think  that  fungi, 
algae,  infusoria,  and  interstitial  worms  are  engendered 
in  organic  detritus.  It  seems  to  be  true  that  organized 
elements  originate  in  a  medium  where  others  were  not 
before  perceived,  such  as  in  the  exudation  from  a  blister 
after  being  filtrated,  or  in  a  drop  of  sweet  and  perfectly 
transparent  whey  in  which  the  microscope  has  not 
previously  discovered  any  organized  corpuscles.  But 
in  such  cases  experience  is  very  untrustworthy,  knowing 
as  we  do  to-day  that  germs  exist  almost  everywhere. 
Furthermore,  in  a  protoplasmatic  mass  the  granulations 
may  act  as  nuclei  in  perfect  cells,  and  therefore  as  first 
motors  for  cellular  multiplication. 

The  principal  propositions  proclaimed  by  Virchow 
in  what  is  called  the  "  cellular  theory  "  may  be  reduced 
to  three:  (i)  the  cellule  is  the  characteristic  and  pre- 
existent  element  of  all  living  forms,  the  conservation 
and  vitality  of  complex  organisms  being  always  due  to 
its  confederation  ;  (2)  the  protoplasm  (or  non-nuclear 
contents  of  the  cells)  is  the  part  in  which  are  incarnated 
the  special  properties  or  constant  characters  of  small 
as  well  as  of  large  cells,  of  normal  as  well  as  of  abnormal 
ones ;  and  (3)  the  nucleus  contributes  greatly  to  con- 
servation and  multiplication  of  living  elements,  serving 


''W 


234 


V/.    ORGANIC  BODIES. 


46.     GENERATION. 


235 


very  little  or  not  at  all  for  cellular  development.  These 
three  propositions  (in  their  descriptive  assertions)  seem 
to  be  in  close  conformity  with  facts,  and  from  this  arises 
the  favour  which  the  cellular  theory  has  received  ;  but 
cellulists  have  not  a  correct  concept  of  life  as  may  be 
clearly  seen  in  the  additional  proposition  of  Virchow 
when  he  says  that  "  many  cells  constitute  with  mutual 
dependence  an  individual,  and  that  every  one  is  a  vital 
unity  endowed  with  its  own  or  inherent  existence,  having 
in  itself  alone  inherent  and  personal  activity  from  which 
the  vital  functions  emanate."  This  proposition  ex- 
presses a  concept  of  the  cells  as  erroneous  and  confusing 
for  Biology  as  is  the  materialistic  concept  of  atoms  in 
Physics  and  Chemistry,  and  the  same  arguments  we 
have  employed  to  rectify  the  idea  of  atomism  may  be 
here  applied  to  the  ideas  of  the  cellulists,  and,  conse- 
quently, it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them.  In  reality 
the  word  cellule  is  only  the  expression  of  an  abstract 
concept  derived  from  the  ultimate  generalization  of 
Comparative  Biology  ;  it  represents  a  single  vital  element 
of  analogous  organization  everywhere,  and  therefore  the 
anatomic  elements  constantly  formed  in  complex  ex- 
istences must  be  deprived  of  all  the  particular  characters 
which  have  operated  in  their  development,  as  form, 
cell-wall,  and  nucleus.  Accordingly  we  must  recognize 
that  protoplasm  may  generate  by  excision  two  or  more 
individuals  from  one  alone,  even  if  it  exists  in  a  diffuse, 
amorph  mass  of  semi-liquid  consistency. 

We  see  that  there  are  no  great  essential  differences 
between  the  two  mentioned  schools  ;  that  the  ultimate 
conclusions  of  both  are  inadmissible  in  Biology,  because 
Robin's  as  well  as  Virchow's  notions  of  life  are  con- 
tradictory to  the  fundamental  principles  of  a  true  physio- 


V   ft 


I 
r 


i^ 


logical  theory  in  which  must  be  avoided  all  idea  of  the 
independence  of  any  part  of  nature,  an  idea  from  which 
transformism  has  sprung. 

There  are  two  other  doctrines  of  cellular  repro- 
duction, besides  those  already  mentioned,  both  of  which 
are  ordinarily  confounded  with  that  of  the  blastema, 
though  at  bottom  they  are  different.  We  refer  to  the 
genesis  of  cells  by  protoplasmatic  granulations,  and  also 
by  inorganic  matter  (cellular  abiogenesis).  According 
to  the  granular  genesis  (maintained  by  Hughes  Bennet, 
who  is  its  most  characteristic  representative),  the  ulti- 
mate elements  of  organism  are  neither  cells  nor  nuclei, 
but  smaller  granulations  necessarily  born  from  disaggre- 
gation of  organized  corpuscles,  such  granulations  being 
endowed  with  properties  by  virtue  of  which  they  unite 
among  themselves  outside  the  cells  as  well  as  within 
them,  in  order  to  engender  visible  forms,  namely,  nuclei, 
cells,  fibres,  and  membranes.  Bennet  calls  attention  to 
the  same  kind  of  observations  as  do  the  upholders  of 
the  blastema,  which  might  in  that  view  be  considered 
as  a  conglomeration  of  such  elemental  granulations  ; 
and  another  point  of  similarity  between  Bennet's  hypo- 
thesis and  the  doctrine  of  blastema  is  the  admission 
of  the  direct  engendering  of  other  cells  by  different  ways 
of  excision  after  the  cellular  organism  is  constituted. 

The  doctrine  which  admits  "spontaneous  generation" 
of  organic  elements  is  called  also  ''  heterogenesis  ;  " 
according  to  this  the  anatomic  elements  may  be  born 
in  the  interior  of  organisms  without  the  direct  formation 
of  cellular  germs,  whether  embryonic  or  of  the  same 
species.  But  such  an  idea  has  arisen  from  the  lack  of 
means  for  true  observation,  as  to-day,  after  a  deep 
analysis  of  the  facts  which  have  tended  to  that  belief. 


aEafiH[fair«fa<Aw 


236 


VI.    ORGANIC  BODIES. 


we  see  that  most  of  the  germs  which  they  considered 
as  formed  simply  by  molecular  aggregation  are  engen- 
dered by  continuous  or  direct  generation  from  parents 
of  the  same  species.  In  reality  the  phytoparasites  as 
well  as  the  zooparasites  and  the  other  formations  which 
appear  to  be  spontaneously  engendered,  are  developed 
from  very  minute  organic  corpuscles,  ovules,  embryos, 
and  vesicles,  especially  existing  in  the  atmosphere. 


§  47.  Brief  Idea  of  Nutrition  in  Particular. 

The  changes  of  nutrition  are  the  primary  changes 
which  are  manifested  in  all  organism.  A  constant 
interchange  of  matter  takes  place  between  every  organic 
existence  and  the  cosmic  medium  around  it.  In  livine 
bodies  there  is  an  incessant  incoming  and  outgoing,  the 
great  metamorphosis  taking  place  within  the  body.  In 
organism  both  kinds  of  chemical  reactions  are  produced  : 
endothermic,  which  are  generally  called  reductions,  and 
exothermic,  which  are  generally  called  oxidations ;  the 
former  consist  in  the  combination  of  carbonic  acid  and 
water,  with  the  reduction  or  elimination  of  oxygen  in 
order  to  form  hydrocarburates  (ternary  compounds  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen),  and  nitrocarburates 
(quaternary  compounds  of  nitrogen,  with  these  three 
mentioned  elements,  and  generally  sulphur  besides). 
The  oxidations  in  living  matter  are  reactions  contrary 
to  those  of  reduction  as  they  consist  in  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  before  mentioned  ternary  and  quaternary 
carburates,  carbonic  acid  and  water  resulting,  for  which 
the  compounds  must  be  provided  with  the  quantity  of 
oxygen  that  was  eliminated  in  their  formation. 

In  this  abstract  study  of  nature  the  two  mentioned 


47.    NUTRITION. 


237 


metamorphoses  are  the  only  chemical  reactions  worthy 
of  consideration.     But   it   is   necessary  to  remark  that 
although  both  kinds  of  metamorphoses  are  produced  in 
all  living  matter,  there  is  great  difference  in  their  relative 
preponderance  in  each  living   kingdom.     Chemical  re-o^^^^^ 
-aetiafi  predominates  in  plants,  and  oxidation  in  animals; 
plants  are  elaborative  machines   of  organized    matter, 
they  destroy  very  little  in  their  oxidations,  while  animals, 
on  the  contrary,  destroy  by  oxidation  more  organized 
matter  than  they   elaborate,  and  for  this  they  need  to 
appropriate  or  assimilate  vegetable  substances.     Hence 
the  animal  is  a  machine  in  gradual  combustion  by  means 
of  which  the  substances  which  are  taken  by  the  plant 
are   returned  to  the  inorganic  world  in  order  to  form 
organic   structures.      In   this   manner    the    constituent 
matter   of  organism  is  constantly   in    circulation ;    the 
substances  are  always  the  same  under  chemical  analysis, 
but   they  are   transferred,   undergoing  great   metamor- 
phoses, from  the  vegetable  to  the  animal  kingdom,  and 
from   this   last  to  the  inorganic,  which  is  the  cosmic 
medium    from   which  the   vegetable   world   assimilates 
again  the  matter  necessary  to  its  finality.    Sun-radiation 
or  photothermic  emission,  which  in  greater  part  results 
from   simple   reflexion,   is   the   inciting    and  providing 
agency  for  the  energy   necessary   to  accomplish   such 
molecular  or  thermo-chemical   changes.     The    progene 
(or  imponderable  ether)  is  absorbed  by  the  green  colour- 
ing  matter   called   chlorophyl,    which  is   the   chemical 
laboratory  of  the  plant,  because  it  is  the  field  where 
carbonic   acid    and   water    are    decomposed,   and    the 
nascent  elements  are  then  assimilated   and   combined, 
forming  the  ternary  and  quaternary  bodies  called  hydro- 
carburates and  nitrocarburates.     The  quantity  of  pro- 


2 ',8 


VI.    ORGANIC  BODIES. 


47.    NUTRITION. 


239 


gene  accumulated  and  confined  in  organism  is  enormous, 
as  any  of  the  ternary  compounds  needs  more  than  five 
hundred  calories  for  its  formation,  and  when  it  is  freed 
from  such  combinations  it  becomes  manifested  prin- 
cipally as  heat  and  muscular  work,  and  we  must  observe 
that  the  last  form  of  manifestation  of  energy  after 
muscular  work  is  also  heat.  This  is  propagated  by 
conduction  and  by  radiation,  losing,  principally  in  con- 
duction, great  part  of  the  living  force  or  manifested 
energy  by  transference  into  a  potential  or  non-manifested 
energy  which  is  a  progenic  state.  In  this  manner  the 
circuit  of  progenic  circulation  is  closed  with  itself  alone, 
as  it  can  never  be  changed  into  any  one  of  the  forms  of 
ponderable  matter.  Accordingly,  there  is  a  twofold 
circulation  in  the  world,  one  for  ponderable  matter  and 
the  other  for  progene,  a  great  difference  existing  between 
the  two  as  the  former  is  never  in  a  potential  state ;  it  is 
always  manifested  to  the  senses,  while  progene  passes 
from  the  potential  to  the  phenomenal  or  manifested 
state  by  the  generating  action  of  vitality,  and  from  the 
phenomenal  to  the  potential  by  all  the  successive 
mechanical  works  of  cosmos,  including  in  this  the 
process  of  disassimilation  in  living  matter,  and,  of 
course,  all  that  is  derived  from  it  either  in  a  direct 
manner  in  living  bodies,  or  indirectly  as  occurs  in  all 
the  changes  of  inorganic  machines.  Consequently  the 
decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  by  plants  is  the  initial 
phenomenon  or  first  manifested  change  of  vitality,  and, 
therefore,  of  cosmic  involution  ;  its  proximate  cause  is 
progene  in  translatory  movement,  whose  generation  is 
supernatural  and  not  mechanical ;  it  is  a  mystery  of  the 
Supreme  Generator.  Such  progenic  currents  carry  the 
molecules  to  the  positions  they  must  occupy  in  organic 


structures  ;  these  once  formed,  all  the  other  changes  in 
the  world  are  produced,  not  by  generation,  but  by 
propagation  with  loss  of  living  force.  Thus  from  organic 
disassimilation  all  the  molar  works  of  the  world  are 
derived,  namely,  (i)  muscular  contractions  ;  (2)  gravity  ; 
(3)  planetary  movements  ;  (4)  terrestrial  magnetism  ; 
and  (5)  the  work  of  inorganic  machines,  whether  they 
are  directly  moved  by  progenic  oscillation  (as  steam 
engines),  or  by  progenic  currents  (electro-motors). 

There  are  no  phenomenal  differences  between  a 
chemical  reaction  within  and  outside  of  living  bodies, 
that  is  to  say,  the  manifested  changes  of  nutrition  are 
but  thermochemical  phenomena  analogous  to  the 
simplest  metamorphoses  of  the  inorganic  world  ;  the 
difference  is  only  in  the  action  of  the  remote  cause 
which  sets  progene  in  a  uniform,  variable  movement 
capable  of  producing  sensual  changes,  taking  it  from 
a  state  in  which,  if  it  underwent  any  variation,  the 
latter  would  be  beyond  the  reach  of  our  senses.  The 
presupposed  differential  character  considered  by  many 
authors  as  existing  between  nutrition  and  inorganic 
reaction  is  only  a  grotesque  representation  of  irreflexive 
experience,  for  in  any  combination  there  is  true  intus- 
susception, and  not  alone  in  nutrition  as  they  assert. 
Some  authors  vainly  pretend  to  explain  nutrition  by 
living  fermentation  or  biocatalipsis,  but  this  is  no  more 
than  a  play  upon  words,  as  these  last  terms  can  be  but 
verbally  defined  by  the  first  word.  Nutrition  cannot 
be  really  defined  ;  it  is  the  ultimatum  of  all  phenomenal 
inquiries,  and  can  only  be  described  with  a  view  of 
taking  the  clearest  idea  of  it  that  is  possible. 

The  movements  of  matter  in  its  circulation  through 
organism  are  of  two  kinds,  visible  and   invisible  ;  the 


240 


VI.    ORGANIC  BODIES. 


former  are  molar  movements,  ordinarily  called  circula- 
tory, and  the  latter  are  of  two  orders,  molecular  and 
progenic.  Molar  circulation  is  a  concrete  or  particular 
study  of  a  special  system,  and  it  cannot  be  the  object 
of  general  considerations.  Moreover,  it  occurs  also  in 
aliments  and  secretitious  liquids,  but  all  depending  on 
muscular  work.  Molecular  circulation  exists  in  nutri- 
tion, osmos  (endosmos  and  exosmos),  filtration,  and 
imbibition,  but  all  these  are,  in  fact,  but  one  with 
quantitative  differences,  because  living  elements  are 
never  like  inorganic  or  dead  membranes  ;  for  every 
element  assimilates  according  to  its  form  of  activity, 
and  to  this,  filtration,  osmos,  and  imbibition  are  sub- 
ordinate. Of  the  circulation  of  progene  in  organism 
we  have  no  special  knowledge  ;  we  can  only  make  the 
application  of  the  theories  of  progenic  physics  to  the 
functions  of  vitality  (see  "  Theory  of  Physics  "). 

We  cannot  go  into  minute  details  about  the  circula- 
tion of  matter  in  organism,  because  we  enter  at  once 
into  the  province  of  Concrete  Biology  ;  it  is  sufficient  to 
give  a  brief  idea  of  the  different  acts  comprehended  in 
the  nutritive  function  in  general.  But  even  for  this  we 
have  only  a  very  defective  knowledge  of  Physiology, 
as  we  cannot  follow  the  evolution  of  matter  step  by 
step  in  organism  ;  we  must  limit  ourselves  to  what  is 
known,  and  this  reduces  us  to  very  narrow  bounds. 
Let  us  suppose  a  cellule  alone  floating  in  a  medium 
which  contains  the  elements  necessary  for  its  existence  ; 
its  constituent  matter  undergoes  gradual  combustion 
(oxidation  or  internal  respiration),  the  oxidated  material 
which  is  already  useless  for  the  necessities  of  the  living 
element  is  eliminated  from  this  (excretion),  but  at  the 
same  time  some  matters  pass  from  the  medium  to  the 


48.    CLASSIFICATION  OF   VITAL  FUNCTIONS.         241 

interior  of  the  cell  (absorption),  being  appropriated  and 
converted  into  principles  analogous  to  those  which  were 
lost  by  oxidation  (organic  reparation),  in  this  manner 
completing  the  circuit.  These  four  acts  are  the  funda- 
mental movements  of  nutrition,  and  are  grouped  under 
two  heads  :  assimilation  (absorption  and  reparation)  and 
disassimilation  (oxidation  and  excretion). 


§  48.  Classification  of  Vital  Functions. 

In  a  complex  organism  life  is  not  sustained  by  any 
of  its  systems  or  apparati  in  particular,  every  one  is 
subordinate  to  or  dependent  on  the  others,  so  that 
vitality  then  results  from  the  interaction  of  the  different 
systems  and  apparati  with  one  another.  From  such 
a  vital  interaction  a  material  circulation  in  all  anatomic 
elements  is  produced,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  foregoing 
section.  The  thermochemical  change  called  nutrition, 
is  the  sole  characteristic  function  common  to  all 
living  matter,  as  all  that  is  alive  is  endowed  with  the 
capacity  of  nutrition,  and  this  function  occurs  only  in 
that  which  is  alive ;  but  we  cannot  say  the  same  of  the 
other  living  functions,  at  least  in  a  relative  sense,  that 
is,  as  we  infer  from  the  sensual  data  taken  from  the 
manifested  changes  of  the  anatomic  elements  when 
fully  developed.  It  is  a  fact  that  in  the  fetus,  including 
the  embryonic  elements  and  the  first  that  are  derived 
from  it,  all  cells  possess,  not  only  the  nutritive  capacity, 
but  also  the  reproductive,  sensitive,  and  contractile ; 
nevertheless,  when  the  economy  is  in  full  development, 
the  anatomic  elements  differentiate  from  one  another 
by  the    increase   of    one   of  the   three   last-mentioned 


242 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES. 


activities  at  the  expense  of  the  other  two  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  seem  to  have  only  one  specific 
function.  Thus,  in  the  adult,  some  epithelia  acquire 
the  reproductive  capacity,  not  only  elemental  or  partial, 
but  integral  or  complete  (genesis  of  the  species) ;  some 
cells  and  fibres  propagate  between  certain  parts  of  our 
body  progenic  currents  which  are  not  pure  progenic 
changes,  as  they  experience  in  their  course  transferences 
into  molecular  changes  and  vice  versa  ;  and  some  other 
fibres  acquire  the  contractile  power  in  order  to  produce 
the  molar  work  necessary  for  the  locomotion  of  the 
body  or  of  some  of  its  parts.  We  must  understand  that 
the  three  specific  functions  of  some  elements  are  sub- 
ordinate to  nutrition,  as  every  one  of  them  presupposes 
a  change  of  material  circulation.  From  this  arises  the 
classic  distinction  between  nutritive  and  functional  irrita- 
tion, but  such  a  distinction  cannot  be  made  in  reality, 
because  no  change  can  occur  in  the  specific  function  of 
any  element  without  a  previous  change  in  its  nutrition, 
nor  can  a  change  in  this  be  produced  without  disturbing 
the  cardinal  functions — innervation  and  muscular  con- 
traction. On  the  other  hand,  nutrition  and  reproduction 
are  both  but  different  forms  of  genesis  ;  the  first  is 
molecular,  and  the  second  cellular,  each  being  the  com- 
plement of  the  other  in  organic  evolution.  This  is 
sufficient  to  stamp  as  erroneous  the  division  of  organic 
changes  into  nutritive  and  functional,  as  at  present  held 
by  most  biologists.  Formerly  the  usual  division  of  the 
changes  of  organism  was  into  vegetative  and  animal, 
the  former  comprehending  nutrition  and  reproduction, 
and  the  latter  contraction  and  innervation.  According  to 
such  a  distinction  animals  should  be  considered  as  formed 
by  the  addition  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems  to 


48.   CLASSIFICATION  OF   VITAL  FUNCTIONS,         243 

a  vegetable  organism,  which  is  constituted  only  by  the 
connective  and  epithelial  systems.  We  have  already 
made  a  criticism  setting  aside  such  a  classification. 

All  the  changes  of  vitality,  which  are  briefly  denomi- 
nated functions,  may  be  classified  into  two  groups — 
phenomenal  and  potential  functions.  We  may  divide 
the  potential  functions  into  protogenesic  (primordial) 
and  deuterogenesic  (secondarily  derived) :  the  former 
group  is  the  proximate  cause  of  trophic  or  nutritive 
changes  ;  and  the  latter  comprehends  the  states  of 
progenic  tension  (potential  heat  and  static  electricity) 
and  of  progenic  current  (dynamic  electricity).  All 
potential  functions,  then,  must  be  directly  referred  to  the 
same  medium — progene — which  is  the  material  agency 
of  similar  changes  in  inorganic  bodies  ;  in  this  manner 
we  avoid  admitting  any  special  fluid  in  organism.  Thus 
the  functions  qualified  as  nervous,  which  consist  in  acts 
of  non-manifested  propagations  producing  either  sen* 
sations  or  muscular  contractions,  are  only  progenic 
changes,  combined  with  molecular  (thermochemical) 
transferences. 

In  all  manifested  changes  or  phenomenal  functions 
ponderable  matter  must  vary  its  place,  and  this  move- 
ment may  be  either  molecular  or  molar.  Molecular 
change  is  the  first  which  appears  to  be  engendered  in 
the  correlative  succession  of  organic  phenomena ;  it  is 
known  by  the  denominations  of  trophic  or  nutritive 
function,  which  combines  in  itself  two  kinds  of  phe- 
nomena, thermic  and  chemic,  and  therefore  we  may  say 
that  the  characteristic  of  nutrition  is  purely  a  thermo- 
chemical change.  Molar  movements  of  organism,  that 
is,  those  which  are  visible,  are  of  two  kinds — excision 
or   division   for  the   multiplication  or  reproduction  of 


IhsM 


\ 


244 


VL   ORGANIC  BODIES. 


49.    CAUSE  OF  VITALITY. 


24s 


organic   structures,  and   returned  or   contractile  move- 
ments for  the  locomotive  function  of  living  matter. 

We  have,  then,  three  latent  functions  or  potential 
changes  of  organism,  and  three  others  which  are  mani- 
fested or  phenomenal.  In  order  to  show  the  classifica- 
tion more  clearly,  we  give  it  in  tabular  form,  as  follows: — 


Potential 
or  non- 
manifested 
functions. 


Primordial  func- 
tion ;  i.e.  proto- 
genic  function 
or  protogeni- 
tion. 

Secondarily  de-  ' 
rived  functions 
which  may  be 
either  in  the 
%\.zXtQi{  tension^ 
or  current — in- 
nervation. 


Phenomenal 

or 

manifested 
functions. 


Molecular  move- 
ment —  nutri- 
tion. 


Molar  move- 
ments which 
may  be  either 
dividing  —  re- 
production^ or 
returned  — con- 
traction. 


Biogenic  potence — changes  of  progene 
which  must  take  place  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  nutritive  metamorphosis. 

1.  Progenic  tension — static  potence  or 
progene  in  equilibrium  in  its  two  forms  : 
potential  heat  and  static  electricity. 

2.  Progenic  current — dynamic  potence 
or  progene  in  propagating  conduction  in 
order  to  be  able  to  produce  effects  by 
its  discharge  at  a  distance— innervation. 

f  Trophic  function — the  first  and  fun- 
damental   manifestation    consisting    in 

i  thermochemical  changes  which  result 
from  the  intermotion  of  progene  with 
atoms. 

1.  Reproduction — first  visible  move- 
ment manifested  in  living  evolution 
consisting  in  individual  multiplication 
by  division  of  some  organic  mass. 

2.  Contraction — a  movement  of  re- 
duction followed  by  relaxation,  mani- 
fested to  the  naked  eye  in  the  action  of 
the  muscles,  and  under  the  microscope 

\  in  the  protoplasm. 


Accordingly,  all  the  acts  of  vitality  have  been  grouped 
under  six  headings  or  kinds  of  function,  namely,  proto- 
genition,  biotension,  innervation,  nutrition,  reproduction, 
and  contraction  ;  the  last  two  correspond  to  visible 
movements,  and  the  four  preceding  to  invisible  (pro- 
genic and  molecular).  Here  we  must  call  special  atten- 
tion to  a  function  worthy  of  consideration,  although  it 
refers  only  to  a  part  of  the  natural  kingdoms,  this  is 


innervation.      Progenic    currents    are    ordinarily    pro- 
pagated in  living  bodies  through   the  nervous  system, 
which  in  very  well  developed  organisms  contains  afferent 
and  efferent  conductors  ;  the  former  are  called  estesodic 
because  they  propagate  the  progenic  movement  which 
determines  sensation,  and  the  latter  are  called  kinesodic, 
because  they  propagate  the  progenic  movement  which 
regularly  provokes  muscular  contractions.     Such  a  pro- 
genic current    resembles  dynamic  electricity,  with   the 
only  difference  that  nervous  propagations  are  under  the 
direct  influence  of  the  nutritive  process  of  the  nervous 
elements,  which,  acting  as  translatory  apparati,  produce 
a  great  diminution  in  the  velocity  of  the  current. 

§  49.  Cause  of  Vitality. 

Let  us  now  discuss  this  very  important  question  in 
order  to  show  that  it  is  a  metaphysical  problem,  and 
therefore  beyond  physiological  knowledge.  We  shall 
try  here  to  expose  and  criticize  briefly  the  principal 
doctrines  that  have  been  advanced  to  explain  organic 
generation— the  primordial  act  of  vitality.  But  such 
doctrines  are  of  two  kinds  ;  some  pretend  to  give  a 
genesic  explanation  of  vitality,  while  others  presume  to 
know  the  cause  of  evolution  because  they  give  a  de- 
scriptive enunciation  of  facts.  (These  last  have  been 
criticized  before.)  The  former,  at  least,  have  the  appear- 
ance of  explaining  a  primordial  cause ;  nevertheless  they 
only  give  verbal  explanations  of  the  genesic  act,  and 
these  do  not  teach  any  true  proposition,  and  conse- 
quently do  not  resolve  any  difficulty;  such  doctrines 
only  remove  the  solution  of  the  problem  to  a  greater 
distance,  and  complicate  it  still  more  as  they  presuppose 


246 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES^ 


49. 


CAUSE   OF  VITALITY. 


247 


intermediary  agents  between  the  Primordial  Cause  and 
physiological  effects.  Such  is  biontological  animism, 
according  to  which  every  being  is  an  automaton,  having, 
besides  the  soul,  a  generating  potence  which  is  trans- 
mitted from  generation  to  generation.  Such  also  is 
vitalism  (a  monoontological  doctrine),  according  to  which 
the  cause  of  material  and  mental  vitality  is  the  same 
thing  endowed  with  the  two  potences.  Vitalists  con- 
sider that  the  cause  of  living  autonomy  is  different  from 
physical  action  ;  that  the  character  of  the  "  vital 
principle "  is  the  generating  activity  of  matter  as  well 
as  of  mind,  while  the  character  of  physical  potence  or 
force  is  movement.  But  from  this  argument  we  cannot 
logically  arrive  at  the  conclusion  admitting  such  an 
intermediary  agent  in  nature.  Some  vitalists  try  to 
explain  life  by  admitting  a  directing  and  creating  action 
only  at  the  beginning  and  growth  of  organism  which 
disappears  as  soon  as  the  evolution  is  completely  insti- 
tuted. But  when  may  evolution  be  considered  as  com- 
pletely instituted?  This  is  another  difficult  problem 
besides  being  an  unknown  ontological  agency. 

Claude  Bernard  says  that  the  destruction  of  organism 
and  its  regeneration  is  a  completely  special  activity 
which  depends  on  "chemical  agents"  inherent  in 
organism.  This  doctrine,  which  we  may  call  chemical 
vitalism,  has  as  frivolous  and  false  a  foundation  as  the 
foregoing.  The  reflection  which  effectually  led  Claude 
Bernard  to  such  a  conception  was  the  absurd  supposition 
that  the  physico-chemical  phenomena  of  living  matter, 
although  subordinate  to  the  law  of  Physics  and  Chemistry, 
have  some  particular  ways  special  only  to  organism, 
and  of  which  inorganic  matter  offers  a  very  inexact 
image.      It  is  very  strange  that  men  of  such  great  in- 


i\ 


I 


vestigating  talent  proclaim  ideas  so  opposed  to  the 
highest  principle  of  our  knowledge  of  nature  ;  for  the 
analysis  of  all  matter  reduced  to  the  last  elements  and 
changes  is  the  same  in  the  inorganic  as  in  the  organic 
world,  the  last  differs  from  the  first  only  in  its  morpho- 
logic and  phenomenal  synthesis. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  determining  cause 
of  the  morphological  and  phenomenal  synthesis  of 
living  matter  is  something  very  different  from  inorganic 
matter,  as  in  this  only  changes  with  loss  of  living  force 
can  be  produced  ;  the  generation  of  living  force  can 
never  be  effected  by  inorganic  matter,  it  can  be  effected 
only  by  the  action  of  the  Supreme.  Great  care  is  neces- 
sary in  treating  of  this  question  in  order  not  to  fall  into 
wrong  interpretations.  In  nature  there  are  no  new 
creations  ;  all  changes  result  from  simple  mutations  or 
transformations  of  existing  realities,  but  the  reparation 
of  the  loss  of  living  force  in  the  world  and  the  unity 
and  concert  which  constantly  reign  throughout  the 
organic  system,  and  consequently  in  the  whole  universe, 
cannot  be  produced  by  inert  bodies  phenomenally  con- 
sidered. Hence  the  primordial  act  of  vitality  obeys  a 
supernatural  government,  and  it  is  a  complete  mystery 
how  the  Creator  directs  the  germs  to  follow  the  character- 
istic evolution  of  their  species,  growing  and  procreating 
by  specific  excision  or  division  of  an  anatomic  element 
(cellule)  into  two  or  more.  The  manifested  changes  of 
vitality  and  all  the  metamorphoses  of  the  inorganic 
world  are  derived  effects  of  material  interactions  or  inter- 
motions,  either  among  the  parts  of  organism,  or  of  this 
with  the  cosmic  medium,  or  else  of  the  parts  of  this 
inorganic  medium  among  themselves. 

Most  authors  at  present  affirm  that  organism  is  irri- 


J248 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES, 


49.   CAUSE  OF  VITALITY, 


249 


table,  meaning  by  this  that  it  reacts  by  itself  alone 
against  an  external  influence  simply  by  action  of  con- 
tact, that  is,  without  any  propagation  from  the  exciting 
agent  to  excited  organism.  But  reactions  of  this  kind 
are  seen  in  chemical  metamorphoses  of  inorganic  matter. 
Nevertheless,  most  physiologists  state  that  irritability 
is  a  characteristic  and  primary  activity  of  organism,  and 
consequently  they  make  all  the  manifestations  of  living 
beings  dependent  on  it.  They  say,  besides,  that  irrita- 
bility, being  a  reaction  of  living  matter,  must  be  pro- 
voked by  some  external  agent  called  "  irritant,"  in  order 
to  become  manifest,  and  as  the  activity  of  the  living 
element  is  manifested  under  different  forms,  according 
to  the  conditions  of  the  organism  and  of  the  irritant 
agent,  this  is  called  by  physiologists  irritation,  which, 
they  say,  may  be  either  genesic  or  nutritive,  or  else 
functional  (external  work).  But  those  facts  called  irri- 
tation, rightly  interpreted,  are  no  more  than  another  and 
improper  name  for  vitality.  Hence,  irritability  must 
not  be  considered  as  a  primordial  force  of  organism,  but 
as  a  figurative  name  for  the  first  change  of  living  bodies, 
that  is,  as  the  ultimate  abstraction  of  the  unknown 
potence  which  acts  as  the  primary  effect  of  all  organic 
manifestations ;  it  is,  then,  what  we  have  called  proto- 

genition. 

In  the  general  concept  of  matter  we  have  explained 
the  meaning  of  the  abstract  terms  "  mass  "  and  "  move- 
ment," and  here  we  must  explain  the  correlative  organic 
terms  "  protoplasm  "  and  "  irritability."  All  the  argu- 
ments employed  to  convince  us  that  mass  and  move- 
ment are  merely  concepts  or  mental  abstractions,  are 
equally  applicable  to  the  concepts  of  protoplasm  and 
irritability.     These  are  nothing  but  words,  comprehend- 


I 


ing  all  the  abstractions  referring  to  organism  in  general, 
for  any  organized  object  is  in  reality  one  alone,  and  not 
an  aggregate  of  organs  and  functions.  Hence  proto- 
plasm and  irritability  signify  only  the  ultimate  notion 
of  living  attributes,  and  therefore  represent  the  limit  of 
generalizations  in  the  inductive  process  regarding  living 

bodies. 

Physiologists,  whether  they  have  forgotten  or  ignored 
the  true  ideal  signification  of  such  abstract  terms,  have 
arrived  at  the  erroneous  conclusion  that  living  phe- 
nomena are  simply  consequences  of  attraction  and  repul- 
sion, resulting  from  the  concurrence  of  some  elemental 
substances,  and  consider  nature  as  a  continuous  succes- 
sion of  cause  and  effect,  subordinate  only  to  those  me- 
chanical laws  which  they  consider  as  the  Primordial 
Cause,  and  therefore  they  suppose  objects  endowed  with 
inherent  power  of  transformation,  which  has  determined 
in  the  universe,  they  say,  a  vast  process  of  development 

or  evolution. 

We  do  not  tire  of  repeating  that  the  mental  necessity 
of  abstractions  in  the  formation  of  thought,  and  in  its 
communication  by  language,  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  concrete  nouns  which  represent  things  existmg 
in  reality.  Thus,  there  are  not  two  independent  bemgs, 
one  static  and  the  other  dynamic ;  this  distinction  is 
only  a  verbal  one,  imposed  by  descriptive  discourse,  and 
nothing  more,  and  therefore  an  organism  is  not  a  com- 
pound of  protoplasm  and  irritability ;  on  the  contrary, 
organisms  are  chiefly  constituted  of  living  matter  called 
protoplasm  ;  but  we  must  not  forget  that  such  a  qualifi- 
cation as  vitality  does  not  represent  any  abstract  force 
that  can  produce  living  reactions  (as  irritability,  etc.), 
but  the  mechanical  result  of  the  combined  intermotions 


2SO 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES. 


49. 


CAUSE  OF   VITALITY. 


251 


in  organism.  How  many  discussions  ending  in  confusion 
have  been  maintained  in  all  centuries  by  men  otherwise 
very  distinguished  in  science  who  mistook  such  a  sepa- 
ration, which  is  purely  verbal,  for  a  real  one. 

Accordingly,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  irritability  in 
the  sense  of  a  vital  force.  No  principle  of  vitality  can 
be  admitted  as  inherent  in  matter,  and  consequently  the 
hypothesis  of  transformism  is  quite  baseless  in  Biology. 
Nevertheless,  the  transformists  have  discovered  some 
general  laws  which  are  empirical,  and  which  help  the 
assimilation  of  descriptive  science. 

What  is  then  the  interaction  between  the  Generating 
Cause  and  progene  ?  This  is  a  metaphysical  problem. 
Physiology  only  investigates  the  successive  changes 
which  are  effected  in  organized  structures  already  formed. 
Neither  can  the  selective  organizing  power  of  vitality, 
which  is  the  sole  cause  of  promotion  in  nature,  directly 
operate  more  than  in  living  bodies,  nor  can  an  organism 
be  formed  by  only  a  transmutation  or  transference  from 
phenomena  or  material  changes.  The  cause  of  vital 
power  in  itself  must  not  be  included  in  the  physical 
investigations  of  the  successive  changes  of  the  universe, 
because  we  cannot  know  by  the  senses,  nor  can  we 
derive  from  phenomena  alone  the  knowledge  of  the 
Primordial  Cause  which  constantly  perturbs  nature  in 
its  well-ordered  concert.  We  must  not  include  in  the 
physiological  concept  of  cosmos  the  primordial  genesis 
of  Metaphysics — Cosmogony,  for  this  doctrine  has 
nothing  to  do  with  objective  sciences. 

Organism,  to  obey  the  power  of  collocation  which 
determines  its  reproduction  and  development,  needs 
ponderable  matter  to  constitute  its  tangible  structures, 
and  imponderable  matter  to  employ  as  a  mechanical 


means  in  transferences  or  indirect  transmissions.  In 
this  manner  organism  is  the  origin  of  all  natural  phe- 
nomena, realizing  a  work  of  production  of  living  force 
at  the  expense  of  potential  energy,  in  order  to  repair 
the  dissipation  of  manifested  energy  in  those  partial 
systems  called  mechanic.  Effectually  living  bodies 
appropriate  cosmic  potence  (latent  progene)  and  sur- 
rounding matter  to  form  organic  structures ;  and  to 
generate  such  a  complicated  collocation  of  material  it  is 
necessary  not  only  to  assimilate  ponderable  matter,  but 
to  restore  the  progenic  energy  which  is  freed  in  the 
moment  of  decomposition. 

We  can  show  at  a  glance  the  difference  between 
mechanic  and  genesic  work  by  means  of  brief  formulas, 
representing  by  small  r  the  resulting  living  force  of  a 
change,  and  by  small /the  living  force  expended.  Then 
we  have  the  formulas — 

Mechanical  work  =  M  \s  r  <  f. 
Genesic  work        =  G  is  r  >/ 

And  repxesenting  by  capital  R  and  F  the  sum  of  the 
resultant  and  expended  forces  in  the  whole  cosmos, 
including  potential  state,  we  have — 

Cosmic  work  =  C  is  R  =  F. 

We  know  by  Mechanics  that  the  work  of  any  trans- 
ference may  be  presented  in  round  numbers  thus,  r  =//2  ; 
and,  therefore,  with  the  guarantee  of  the  principle  of 
conservation  of  energy  in  the  universe,  we  infer  the 
formula  of  genesic  work  in  round  numbers  r  =  2/  This 
is  the  formula  of  the  great  secret  of  nature,  as  it  repre- 
sents the  antagonistic  and  repairing  action  of  mechanic 
dissipation.  The  total  work  of  cosmos  comprehending 
both  //2  and  2/  which  we  represent  in  a  whole  by  R 


252 


VL   ORGANIC  BODIES, 


49. 


CAUSE  OF   VITALITY. 


253 


may  be  condensed  in  the  formula  R  =  F,  that  is,  con- 
servation of  energy.  In  this  last  formula  and  principle 
we  must  take  into  account  the  constant  conversion  of 
living  force  in  mechanism  into  latent  by  the  determined 
resistance  of  centrifugal  oscillation  and  the  centripetal 
pressure  of  progene  on  ponderable  matter,  that  is  to  say, 
by  thermic  potence,  and  principally  by  the  resistance  of 
gravity. 

Mechanical  or  artificial  synthesis  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  biological  or  natural.  The  difference  does 
not  consist  in  the  possibility  of  producing  any  change 
whatever.  When  a  chemist  combines  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen  to  form  immediate  principles,  he 
cannot  do  it  as  an  organism,  because  he  needs  to  employ 
a  living  force  greater  than  the  resultant.  In  the  same 
manner,  if  a  chemist  in  the  future  should  be  able  to 
accumulate  the  immediate  principles  in  order  to  form 
protoplasm,  it  is  certain  that  the  work  then  produced 
will  be  under  the  same  mechanical  condition,  that  is, 
according  to  the  formula  r  <  f  or  r  =  f/.2 — phenomenal 
resultant  about  half  less  than  employed  force  (excluding 
that  which  is  latent).  A  chemist  will  never  be  able  to  do 
that  which  is  done  by  an  organism,  to  elaborate  organic 
matter  with  the  formula  r  >  /  or  r  =  2/  that  is,  phe- 
nomenal resultant  twice  as  great  as  the  expended  living 
force;  this  is  a  problem  which  Chemistry  cannot  resolve, 
no  more  than  Mechanics  can  ever  resolve  the  problem 
of  perpetual  movement,  which  is  a  cosmic  work  ac- 
cording to  the  formula  R  =  F — resultant  equal  to  the 
expended  force.  This  is  sufficient  to  set  aside  all 
transformistic  ideas  which  try  to  explain  the  origin  and 
evolution  of  nature  by  matter  alone,  the  only  principle 
which  transformists  admit  in  the  universe. 


(\ 


C'l 


Many  scientists  believe  that  in  the  future  chemical 
synthesis  will   be  able  to  explain   organic   generation, 
basing  this  belief  on  the  sole  reason  that  they  expect 
to   elaborate   all   the  immediate   principles   of  organic 
bodies.     But  this  would  not  be  an  organic  synthesis,  it 
would  be  only  the  first  link  in  the  chain  of  successive 
analysis.     Furthermore,  even    if  we   suppose   that   the 
chemist  of  the  future  in  the  laboratory  may  reach  that 
point  where  he  can  associate  the  immediate  principles  to 
form  a  complete  organic  structure,  is  it  logical  to  deny  an 
elaborating  intelligence  to  the  natural  laboratory  of  a 
living  body,  when  we  necessarily  admit  it  in  the  artificial 
one  ?     Such  a  primordial  organizing  intelligence  is  not, 
in  truth,  perceived  by  the  human  mind  because  no  one 
can  be  conscious  of  another's  intelligence,  but  it  must 
be   conscious    in    the  Divinity  itself  (it   being   contra- 
dictory to  suppose  an  unconscious  intelligence),  and  in  it 
alone  are  the  purpose  and  finality  of  objects  or  natural 
beings. 

The  conditions  of  the  cosmic  means  are  never  com- 
plete or  perfect  for  the  development  of  an  organism,  as 
in  the  successive  intermingling  phenomena  of  cosmos 
there  is  always  some  deficiency,  and  so  in  a  finite 
number  of  objects  we  never  contemplate  absolute  quali- 
ties which  can  be  attributed  only  to  the  Infinite.  The 
Infinite  alone  can  be  true,  good,  and  beautiful  in  absolute ; 
only  the  universe  as  a  whole  is  a  true,  good,  and  beautiful 
system  in  absolute ;  one  part  alone,  as  the  living  body, 
cannot  be  more  than  relative  in  all  and  for  all. 


254 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES, 


§  50.  Recapitulation  of  the  Concept  of 

Living  Matter. 

Organic  genesis  comprehends  individual  evolution 
during  the  time  an  organism  preserves  its  existence,  and 
reproduction  of  species  when  the  multiplication  of  beings 
is  produced. 

Individual  evolution  may  be  summarized  in  the  three 
following  propositions : — 

1.  The  vegetable  world  produces  transferences  of 
progenic  energies,  propagated  from  the  inorganic  world 
into  molecular  energies,  while  the  animal  kingdom  trans- 
fers the  progenic  and  molecular  energies  which  it  draws 
from  the  vegetable  world  into  molar  energies,  and 
restores  to  the  inorganic  world  the  progenic  power  which 
was  transferred  into  molecular  by  vegetation. 

2.  In  both  living  kingdoms  such  acts  have  as  the 
first  manifestations  of  vitality,  chemical  metamorphoses, 
whose  force  is  measured  by  calories,  and  therefore 
calorie  must  also  serve  as  a  standard  of  comparison  to 
determine  the  relative  quantivalence  of  vitality.  This 
concept  is  indispensable  for  the  progress  of  Biology,  for 
which  we  must  take  as  a  base  the  law  of  maximum 
work  when  we  discover  the  transformations  which  take 
place  in  every  being,  and  the  degree  of  stability  in  its 
composition. 

3.  The  potence  which  is  the  limit  of  our  physio- 
logical investigations  is  progenic,  admitting  and  recog- 
nizing that  the  Generating  Cause  (Creator)  constructs 
organic  structures  by  means  of  currents  of  progene  in 
the  same  manner  as  inorganic  combinations  are  formed. 


50.   RECAPITULATION. 


2SS 


because  at  bottom  organic  as  well  as  inorganic  reactions 
are  only  material  combinations  or  changes  in  molecular 
extension  and  complexity. 

In  Part  I.  we  have  demonstrated  that  all  forces  are 
measures  of  resulting  movements,  and  that  all  physio- 
logical laws  express  only  relations  among  the  effects  of 
nature  ;  neither  forces  nor  mechanical  laws  are  gene- 
rating causes  which  could  produce  primordial  effects. 
That  tendency  of  modern  authors  of  Physiology  to 
explain  all  natural  phenomena  by  variations  in  the 
structure  and  configuration  of  bodies,  is,  therefore,  a 
pretension  not  to  be  realized  ;  otherwise  we  should  only 
have  to  invert  the  terms  of  the  phrase,  and  then  say 
that  the  formation  and  configuration  of  organic  structures 
are  explained  by  themselves.  But  this  is  evidently  false, 
because  the  greatest  analogies  in  the  germs  of  organism 
correspond  to  the  greatest  individual  differences  in  their 
ulterior  development,  that  is,  in  the  phenomena  of  their 
succession. 

The  collocation  of  matter  in  organism  is  an  incon- 
ceivable change,  it  is  completely  opposed  to  the  facts 
of  inertia  of  matter,  and  needs  therefore  the  action  of 
immaterial  influence.  By  propagation  of  movement 
alone  we  cannot  effectually  construct  any  organized 
body  even  theoretically,  because,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  in  it  the  contrary  happens  to  what  takes  place  iri 
an  inorganic  machine  ;  there  is  a  conversion  of  latent 
power  into  manifested,  from  this  resulting  the  generation 
of  actual  and  disposable  forces,  instead  of  the  dissipation 
of  living  or  phenomenal  energy,  as  we  see  constantly 
produced  in  any  pure  mechanic  means,  complicated  and 
perfect  though  it  may  be. 

The  power  of  generation,  or  of  collocation  in  organ- 


'*•-■.  -' 


256 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES, 


50.  RECAPITULATION, 


257 


ism  is  metaphysical ;  we  have  sufficient  reason  to  declare 
fully,  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  explaining  the  con- 
struction of  living  matter  more  than  by  the  influence  of 
an  Intelligent  Cause,  which  cannot  be  perceived  by  our 
consciousness.  The  generation  of  potence  which  directs 
the  collocation  of  organic  principles  in  the  construction 
of  a  living  body  is  as  enigmatic  as  the  creation  of 
inorganic  material. 

Cellular  multiplication.  A  complete  exposition  and 
discussion  of  the  various  doctrines  of  organic  generation 
would  be  almost  interminable,  and  we  will  confine  our- 
selves here  to  recapitulating  only  the  principal  ones,  and 
these  as  briefly  as  possible.  All  may  be  comprehended 
in  two  groups ;  one  embraces  those  pretending  to  give 
a  genesic  explanation,  or  to  discover  the  original  mystery 
by  vain  words  representing  abstract  forces  as  bionto- 
logic  animism,  vitalism,  directing  and  creating  force, 
vital  affinity,  and  so  on  ;  and  the  other  group  compre- 
hends the  descriptive  explanations  of  the  formation  of 
new  cellules,  as  the  so-called  cellular  and  blastematic 

theories. 

Some  histologists,  of  the  French  school  in  particular, 
maintain  that  among  the  morphologic  elements  of 
organic  tissues  there  are  semi-liquid  substances  that 
almost  always  contain  elements  of  new  formation,  which 
they  suppose  to  be  formed  by  a  kind  of  free  condensa- 
tion of  some  semi-liquid  they  call  blastema.  Those  who 
maintain  this  free  cellular  formation  admit  it  in  the 
following  cases:  (i)  generation  of  the  reproducing 
elements  (male  and  female) ;  (2)  formation  of  the  first 
elements  of  an  embryo;  (3)  generation  and  regeneration 
of  epithelium  ;  and  (4)  generation  of  the  greater  part  of 
pathologic  neoplasm. 


t 


I  r 


I 


: 


i 


; 


The  cellular  theory  is  principally  held  by  the 
German  school,  and  is  to-day  the  most  widespread 
throughout  the  world.  Its  propositions  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  terms:  (i)  the  cellule  is  the 
characteristic  and  pre-existent  element  of  all  living 
forms,  the  succession  and  conservation  of  vitality  being 
linked  to  it ;  (2)  the  nucleus  is  the  part  which  con- 
tributes most  to  sustain  and  multiply  the  living  elements  ; 
(3)  the  protoplasm  is  the  part  which  gives  to  the  cellules 
their  special  characters ;  and  (4)  every  cellule  of  those 
forming  a  complex  organism  is  an  individuality  which 
possesses  in  itself  its  own  activity  from  which  its 
functions  emanate. 

This  last  proposition  expresses  as  erroneous  a  con- 
cept of  the  cellule,  as  does  that  of  physicists  and  chemists 
about  atoms.     This  parallel  once  made,  the  same  argu- 
ments which  were  employed  against  modern   atomism 
are  applicable  here.     Thus  the  cellule  is  the  concept  of 
a  mental  abstraction  of  an  ideal  protobio  (from  protos 
first  and  bios,  life),  by  means  of  which  it  is  represented* 
in    language  as    a    simple   element,    always   analogous 
and   constant   in   all  living   bodies,   thus   stripping   the 
cellule,  which  has  a  true  cellular  figure,  of  all  that  is 
particular   in   its  real  or  concrete  existence.     So   that 
reproduction  by  excision  of  the  protoplasm  is  admitted, 
although  this  may  be  under  a  diffuse,  asymmetrical,  and 
perhaps  semi-liquid  form.     On  the  other  hand,  without 
detaining  ourselves  here  to  investigate  the  existence  and 
functions  of  blastema,  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  the 
two  schools,  French  and  German,  do  not  differ  essentially 
in  their  fundamental  concepts,  and  that  both  are  contra- 
dictory to  the    true  principles    of  physiological  theory, 
as  they  aim  to  inculcate  independence  among  the  parts 

S 


k 


\.^ 


258 


VI.   ORGANIC  BODIES. 


51.    ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  AGGREGATES.       259 


of  the  system,  so  sowing  the  baneful  seeds  of  trans- 

formism. 

All  living  beings,  elemental  as  well  as  complex,  are 
subject  to  a  ftxed>  determined  evolution,  being  neces- 
sarily born  from  a  germ  ;  our  organism,  as  well  as  every 
one  of  the  living  elements  which  constitute  it,  must  be 
engendered  in  direct  succession  :  omne  vivum  ex  ovo, 
equal  to  omnis  cellula  a  cellula.  We  recognize  the  truth 
of  this  assertion  of  the  cellular  theory,  but  we  interpret 
the  term  cellule  in  the  most  extended  sense  according 
to  abstract  signification^  including  in  it  even  the  free 
masses  of  protoplasm ;  although  in  general,  especially  in 
superior  beings,  the  generating  elements  have  their  own 
form  more  or  less  like  a  typical  cellule. 

After  birth,  all  individuals  follow  three  successive 
stages  during  development— growth,  fixed  condition,  and 
decline  to  death.  Growth  depends  on  the  sum  of  the 
interaction  of  constituent  elements,  producing  an  increase 
of  the  anatomic  elements  already  existing  principally 
by  new  elements  formed  by  multiplication  of  those  pre- 
existent.  The  form  of  organic  growth  explains  the 
other  two  stages  in  the  evolution  of  life,  because  they 
grow  in  their  totality  relatively  more  on  their  surface  as 
the  ratio  of  the  cube  to  the  square.  The  molar  work, 
also,  principally  in  animal  life,  is  greater  in  proportion 
to  the  growth  without  increasing  the  ingress  of  matter, 
and  besides  the  constant  diffusion  of  liquids  through  the 
membranes  leaves  mineral  substances  incrusted  in  them, 
eventually  producing  their  true  mineralization,  which 
decreases  their  endosmotic  power  and  therefore  their 
activity  for  the  interchange  of  matter. 


/ 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CONCEPT  OF  PLANETARY  BODIES  :  ORGANIC  AND  IN- 
ORGANIC MATTER  TOGETHER  FORMING  WORLDS 
(ABSTRACTION  BEING  MADE  OF  INTELLIGENT 
POWERS). 

§  51.  Aggregates  of  organic  and  inorganic  bodies — §  52.  Brief  description 
of  the  earth,  sun,  and  moon — §  53.  Terrestrial  gravity — §  54* 
Planetary  movements  of  the  earth  and  terrestrial  magnetism — §  55* 
Recapitulation  of  the  concept  of  planetary  bodies. 

§51.    Aggregates    of  Organic   and   Inorganic 
Bodies — (World  or  Physical  Cosmos). 

The  worlds  are  composed  of  the  two  kinds  of 
bodies,  inorganic  and  organic  ;  the  inorganic  are  in 
different  physical  states  (solids  and  fluids),  and  the 
organic  constitute  the  two  living  kingdoms  (vegetable 
and  animal).  We  must  now  give  the  fundamental 
analogies  and  differences  between  living  and  non-living 
bodies,  as  well  as  a  summary  of  their  distribution  in  our 
world,  although  this  last  point  is  more  especially  reserved 
for  the  next  section. 

From  the  material  analysis  of  living  bodies  only  a 
few  chemical  elements  result  which  are  the  same  in  dead 
bodies  (corpses) ;  they  exist  equally  in  the  most  inferior 
beings  and  in  man,  and  they  are  profusely  scattered 
throughout  the  inorganic  medium.    Nevertheless,  reflect- 


\' 


s6o 


ViL   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


Ing  on  the  cliaracters  of  lite  from  the  ovule  or  organic 
germ  to  its  development  and  death,  there  is  no  doubt 
that,  in  it  we  discover  functions  which  consist  In  a  sV'^tem 
of  changes  never  observed  m  synthesis  outside  of  living 
bodies  ;  but  in  analysis  all  the  changes  of  vitality  aix; 
exactly  eqyai  to  the  potential  and  phenomeeai  states 
that  have  been  discovered  in  the  inorganic  world.  I  fence, 
the  organisfJi,  physiologically  considered,  is  only  one  of 
the  phases  of* matter  ;  in  a  material  sense  the  orgaoic 
germ,  then,  consists  simply  in  the  conibiiiation  of  the 
elements  which  are  discovered  by  chemical  analysis  as 
forming  ao  alotropic  state  of  the  matter  common  to 
both  k?nds  of  bodies.  But  iS  this  a  condition  sufficient 
to  deterriiiiie  the  r.ctions  of  the  ditlereiit  parts  uf"  inir 
organism,  among  themselves  and  with  the  exte^niai 
medium,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  living  body  could  be 
considered  as  a  peculiar  form  of  redistribotion  of  matter 
regulated  only  by  mcchaaicai  laws  ?  Although  we  have 
already  answered  this  question  negatively  and  have 
demonstrated  our  assertion,  this  point  needs  further 
consideration  in  order  to  explain  our  fiKidaniefital^  pro- 
position :  we  admit  that  the  true  Primordial  Cause, 
which  is  the  metaphysical  subject  to  be  treated  of^oii 
supernatural  grounds,  acts  directly  upon  living  bodies, 
giving  them  the  necessary  direction  to  build  their  organic 
structures  ;  but  we  do  not  recognize  any  essenlial  differ- 
ence in  the  effects  which  constitute  all  possible  know- 
ledge of  the  physical  object  or  natural  ground  The 
manifested  differences  betweeo  organic  and  inorganic 
bodies  are  only  quantitative  and  not  essential ;  this  fmm% 
m  analysis,  has  been  already  elucidated  in  the  gmm^l 
concept  of  iiiatter.  Now  let  us  consider  it  synthetically. ^ 
Perhaps  our  mmd  might  be  a  little  better  saHisied. 


i 


51,   ORGAmC  A  WD  IMOMGdMIC  AGCREGATES.       t6t- 

with  the  idea  that  the  natural  eiements  of  an  organisiB, 
t.e.  those  %¥hich  are  manifested^  are  the  sole  ageots  in 
relation  to  vitality,  if  all  organisms  were  identical,  haviof 
the  same  configuration  and  functional  e¥oiiJtioiii  ;   but 
Hving  bodies  are  of  very  different  forms,  and  have  the 
most  various  evolution  in  opposition  to  their  identity  in 
tlieir  niateriai  composition.     The  complete  proof  of  the 
necessity  of  an  essential  cause  of  life  different  from  the 
mechanical  propagation  of  movement  belongs  to  Meta- 
physics and   not  to   Physiology  (Natural  Sciences),  as 
this   in   it:^   inqiiiries   must   not   go   beyond   maoifested 
erlects    and   tlierr  proximate  cause  (material  potence). 
The  inquiry  into  tlie  Prioiordial  Cause  does  not  coiicern 
Fhysioloijy,  which  must  limit  itself  to  the  study  of  Cosmic 
^fechardsm.  but  this  is  no  reason  to  forget  and  still  k^ss 
to  denv  the  principle  and  end  of  objective  nature~--thQ 
Suprentc   Intelligence  to  which  physical  cosmos  must 
be   subordinated   merely  as  a,  supplementary  medium. 
Thus,  then,  wc  consider  the  world  as  a  whole  io  which 
hvhig  matter  is  the  direct  fTiedium,  and  dead  and  inor- 
ganic  matter  the   indirect  inediurn    to   accomphsh  the 
supernatural  aim.     Accordingly.,  it  is  not  out  of  place 
to  state  that  true  physiological  science  is  not  opposed  to 
theok\gical    behef ;   thoogh   badly   interpreted    in   their 
principles,  they  have  been  considered  by  rnan).^  as  con- 
tradictory ;    on    the   contrary^  the  Science   of  Cosmos, 
according  to  our  physiological   theor}^  is  in   complete 
harniony  with  true  Monotheism,  and  subordinate  as  a 
sypplemcnt  to  the  subject  of  true  behef     This  maxim 
m^e  must  not  forget,  lest  we  fell  into  the  erroneous  view 
of  those  who,  intoxicated  by  the  fantasy  of  the  present 
posittvisiB,  pretend   to   subordinate   everythieg  to  the 
much-talked'Of  **  experience,"  wheti:  this  consists  but  of 


> 


\ 


!26o 


VII.  PLANETARY  BODIES. 


ing  on  the  characters  of  life  from  the  ovule  or  organic 
germ  to  its  development  and  death,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  in  it  we  discover  functions  which  consist  in  a  system 
of  changes  never  observed  in  synthesis  outside  of  living 
bodies  ;  but  in  analysis  all  the  changes  of  vitality  are 
exactly  equal  to  the  potential  and  phenomenal  states 
that  have  been  discovered  in  the  inorganic  world.    Hence, 
the  organism,  physiologically  considered,  is  only  one  of 
the  phases  of  matter  ;  in  a  material  sense  the  organic 
germ,  then,  consists  simply  in  the  combination  of  the 
elements  which  are  discovered  by  chemical  analysis  as 
forming  an  alotropic  state  of  the  matter  common  to 
both  kinds  of  bodies.     But  is  this  a  condition  sufficient 
to  determine  the  actions  of  the  different  parts  of  our 
organism,    among   themselves    and    with    the    external 
medium,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  living  body  could  be 
considered  as  a  peculiar  form  of  redistribution  of  matter 
regulated  only  by  mechanical  laws  ?     Although  we  have 
already   answered   this   question    negatively   and    have 
demonstrated   our   assertion,   this   point   needs    further 
consideration  in  order  to  explain  our  fundamental  pro- 
position :    we   admit   that   the   true   Primordial   Cause, 
which  is  the  metaphysical  subject  to  be  treated  of  on 
supernatural  grounds,  acts  directly  upon  living  bodies, 
giving  them  the  necessary  direction  to  build  their  organic 
structures  ;  but  we  do  not  recognize  any  essential  differ- 
ence in  the  effects  which  constitute  all  possible  know- 
ledge of  the  physical  object  or  natural  ground.      The 
manifested  differences  between    organic  and  inorganic 
bodies  are  only  quantitative  and  not  essential ;  this  point, 
in  analysis,  has  been  already  elucidated  in  the  general 
concept  of  matter.     Now  let  us  consider  it  synthetically. 
Perhaps  our  mind  might  be  a  little  better  satisfied 


« 

( 


51.    ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  AGGREGATES.       261 

with  the  idea  that  the  natural  elements  of  an  organism, 
i.e.  those  which  are  manifested,  are  the  sole  agents  in 
relation  to  vitality,  if  all  organisms  were  identical,  having 
the  same  configuration  and  functional  evolution  ;   but 
living  bodies  are  of  very  different  forms,  and  have  the 
most  various  evolution  in  opposition  to  their  identity  in 
their  material  composition.     The  complete  proof  of  the 
necessity  of  an  essential  cause  of  life  different  from  the 
mechanical  propagation  of  movement  belongs  to  Meta- 
physics and  not  to  Physiology  (Natural  Sciences),  as 
this  in  its  inquiries  must   not   go   beyond   manifested 
effects   and  their  proximate  cause  (material  potence). 
The  inquiry  into  the  Primordial  Cause  does  not  concern 
Physiology,  which  must  limit  itself  to  the  study  of  Cosmic 
Mechanism,  but  this  is  no  reason  to  forget  and  still  less 
to  deny  the  principle  and  end  of  objective  nature — the 
Supreme   Intelligence  to  which  physical  cosmos  must 
be  subordinated  merely  as  a  supplementary  medium. 
Thus,  then,  we  consider  the  world  as  a  whole  in  which 
living  matter  is  the  direct  medium,  and  dead  and  inor- 
ganic matter  the  indirect  medium   to   accomplish  the 
supernatural  aim.     Accordingly,  it  is  not  out  of  place 
to  state  that  true  physiological  science  is  not  opposed  to 
theological    belief;    though   badly   interpreted    in   their 
principles,  they  have  been  considered  by  many  as  con- 
tradictory ;    on   the   contraryi^  the  Science   of  Cosmos, 
according  to  our  physiological   theory,  is  in    complete 
harmony  with  true  Monotheism,  and  subordinate  as  a 
supplement  to  the  subject  of  true  belief     This  maxim 
we  must  not  forget,  lest  we  fall  into  the  erroneous  view 
of  those  who,  intoxicated  by  the  fantasy  of  the  present 
positivism,  pretend   to    subordinate    everything   to   the 
much-talked-of  "  experience,"  when  this  consists  but  of 


262 


V2I.  PLANETARY  BODIES. 


sensual  appearances  often  highly  deceptive.  Neverthe- 
less, let  us  see  what  experience  teaches  us,  but  only 
when  guided  by  sound  reason. 

The  corporeal  species  are  defined  either  as  chemical 
species  or  living  species  ;  the  former  can  be  produced 
by  decomposition  of  organic  structures  or  by  chemical 
combination  of  different  elements,  while  the  latter  can- 
not be  produced  either  by  decomposition  or  by  combi- 
nation of  different  elements.     Besides,  in  the  formation 
of  complex  inorganic  bodies,  the  resulting  substance  is 
very  different  from  the  producing  or  original  ones,  while 
organic  bodies  are  necessarily  engendered  by  a  complex 
individual  of  the  same  species,  and  better  to  say,  the 
new  body  is  no  more  than  one  part  of  one  species,  sole 
matrice  of  all  the  individuals  which  are  separated  by  exci- 
sion.    So  it  results  that  the  engendering  body  and  the 
engendered  one  are  analogous,  and  that  the  last  formed 
part  of  the   first   with   all  the  conditions  of  a  partial 
existence,  depending  on  the  individual.     But  the  two 
kinds   of  corporeal   species   are   not    independent    nor 
essentially  different,  they  are  complementary,  because 
there  is  no  new  creation  of  material ;  every  increase  in 
one  kingdom  supposes  a  diminution  in  the  other  and 
the  reverse ;  such  change  of  material  circulation  is  con- 
stant, but  the  prime  object  of  such  incessant  change  is 
the  organic  world,  and  the  secondary  medium   is  the 
inorganic  world  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  former  is  the  place 
where  the  first  effect  of  primordial  action  is  produced, 
while  the  latter  serves  only  as  a  conditional  medium 
for  the  interchanges  of  the  organic  world.     Therefore, 
in  the  relative  succession  or  relation  of  derived  causes 
the  activity  of  the  inorganic  world  is  a  secondary  effect 
subordinate  to  vitality ;  the  genesis  of  this  is  a  mystery 


I 


SI.   ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  AGGREGATES.       263 

and  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  as  any  other 
change  may  be  explained  by  mechanical  propagation. 

The   growth   of  both    kinds  of  bodies   is   operated 
in  similar  ways  :    either  by  molecular  combination  or 
intussusception,  or  by  molar  aggregation  or  juxtaposi- 
tion, with  the  only  difference  that  living  bodies  increase 
almost  exclusively  by  intussusception,  while  dead  and 
inorganic  bodies,  on   the  contrary,  commonly  increase 
their  bulk  by  juxtaposition.     But  there  is  a  still  more 
remarkable  characteristic  in  the  growth  of  living  bodies, 
that  is,  in  the  morphologic  concept ;  they  must  have  a 
peculiar  form  and  limited  dimensions  while  the  exist- 
ence of  inorganic  bodies  is  compatible  with  an  indefinite 
number  of  forms  and  is  also  capable  of  undergoing  the 
greatest  increase  or  diminution  in  dimensions.     Organ- 
isms  have,  besides,  another  morphological  character  very 
well  defined  :   they  are  necessarily  of  some  solid  con- 
sistency, they  cannot  be  fluidified  ;  while  inorganic  bodie'^ 
can  be  changed    in    their   physical   state,  those   which 
ordinarily  are  solid  may  undergo  either  liquefaction  or 
evaporation  or  else  both,  and  even  if  there  is  an  excep- 
tion, like  carbon,  which  is  a  fixed  solid  body,  that  also 
may   be    dissolved    (by    combination)   in    some    liquids 
and  solidified  again  (by  decomposition  of  the  solution), 
becoming  the  same  corporeal  species  as  before.     Lique- 
faction by  any  means  in  living  bodies  determines  their 
death,    and    consequently    they    cannot    be    afterwards 
restored  to  their  former  state.     Again,  the  limit  of  the 
existence  of  living  bodies  is  formed  by  molar  division, 
while   it   is   illimitable    in    inorganic    bodies.      In    this 
sense  we  may  say  that  organic  bodies  have  a  definite 
existence  in  space,  and  therefore  are  specific  in  their 
morphology,  while  inorganic  species  are  variable,  mor- 


2^4 


VII.  PLANETARY  BODIES. 


51.    ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  AGGREGATES.       265 


e.f 


phologically  considered,  and  therefore  have  an  unde- 
finable  existence  in  space. 

Living  bodies  are  not  only  defined  in  their  relations 
in  space,  but  also  in  time  ;  the  duration  of  every  indi- 
vidual is  limited,  ending  always  by  decomposition  or 
corruption,  and  beginning  by  birth.  Generation  is  an 
activity  existing  only  in  the  living  species,  and  not  in 
any  object  outside  of  that,  while  the  elaboration  of  a 
chemical  species  is  necessarily  produced  by  one  or  more 
species  different  from  the  resultant ;  thus,  for  instance,  to 
form  water  we  combine  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

We  might  enumerate  many  other  morphologic  and 
phenomenal  differences  between  living  and  inorganic 
bodies,  but  all  are,  of  course,  relative  or  quantitative, 
because,  as  we  have  repeatedly  said,  we  are  not  able  to 
perceive  objectively  or  by  means  of  our  senses  any  other 
characters  than  the  relations  of  quantity.  Thus,  mor- 
phologic differences  do  not  consist  in  any  qualitative 
character,  for  organic  matter  consists  in  the  combination 
and  mixture  of  inorganic  elements,  though  in  such  a 
manner  that  a  peculiar  structure  is  formed  (protoplasm 
and  its  derived  formations),  which  can  never  result  as  a 
direct  product  of  an  inorganic  laboratory.  In  the  same 
manner,  the  phenomenal  differences  between  living  and 
non-living  bodies,  are  also  differences  of  aggregation, 
as  may  be  more  clearly  seen  in  the  following  table  : — 

I.  Known  energies  primordially  derived  as  functions 
of  organism  :  vital  synthesis.  (We  do  not  mention  in 
this  table  either  protogenition  or  biotension,  because 
they  are  unknown.) 

T     .  -ui    /  •    r  Progenic  change  :  potential  transmis-  It 

Ind  morT")'        ^'^^  <^^^"  electricity).  )  Innervation, 

m    ecu  ar;,  <  Molecular  change :  thermochemical   )  tvt  *.  -i.- 

mnvpm^ntc  I  ^i,^„^_^„„       ^  \  NutlltlOn 

^      phenomena. 


( 


Visible  (bodily  or 
molar)  move- 
ments. 


Complete  division  :  cellular  excision.    Reproduction. 
Return   movement  in   cellular  ele-  |  Contraction. 


ments. 


2.  Energies  secondarily  derived,  common  to  inorganic 
and  organic  matter  :  mechanical  analysis. 

{Quantitative   change  \  Electricity    (static 
of  progene.  j       and  dynamic. 

Change  of  progenic  \  Potential  heat  (latent 
oscillations.  /      and  radiant). 

TV.  -^  .  A  ^'^''^^^^^^^y  "*°^"-  \  Light. 

Manifested   1       ment  of  progene.     J       *» 
changes,     j  Oscillatory     move-  \  gound 


Progenic  or 

imponderable 

energies. 


Atomic  or 

ponderable 

energies. 


\      ment  of  progene. 

!  Change  of  intermole-  "I  Heat     (temperature 
cular  distances.        /      and  state). 
Change  of  molecular  \  Affinity      (chemical 
composition.  /      change). 

,  Molar  changes  :  visible  or  ordinary  movements. 


movements. 


} 


But  in  opposition  to  the  analogy  between  the  effects 
there  is  the  difference  in  the  cause,  for  the  physiological 
synthesis  of  vitality  is  produced  according  to  a  mathe- 
matical formula  precisely  inverse  to  that  of  inorganic 
machines  ;  these  constantly  lose  some  living  force — that 
which  may  be  manifested  in  works  necessary  to  fulfil 
the  mechanical  aims  of  man,  and  the  empire  of  living 
bodies  produces  as  a  definite  resultant  the  reparation  in 
cosmos  of  the  force  dissipated  in  the  propagations  of 
non-living  bodies.  Thus  the  ovule  or  living  germ  con- 
structs a  more  or  less  complex  building  and  engenders 
phenomena  at  the  expense  of  energy,  some  of  which 
is  potential.  This  cannot  be  done  by  any  inorganic 
machine,  nor  even  can  any  mechanical  works  resolve 
the  problem  of  perpetual  movement  which  exists  in 
cosmos,  because  all  bodies  lose  46  per  cent,  of  living 
energy  in  any  manifested  propagation. 

It  is  necessary  to  be  on  our  guard  in  order  not  to  be 


266 


VII.  PLANETARY  BODIES. 


52.   EARTH,  SUN  AND  MOON 


267 


deceived  by  certain  false  appearances  ;  thus,  on  the  one 
hand,  electric  machines  convert  potential  into  pheno- 
menal energy  when  they  produce  light  or  molar  work, 
but  electricity  must  be  produced  by  a  living  energy 
greater  than  that  which  results  from  it ;  and  on  the 
other  hand  green  vegetation  when  very  well  developed 
and  under  the  action  of  sunshine,  absorbs  a  greater 
quantity  of  manifested  energy  than  it  spends,  but  we 
must  take  into  account  that  such  conversion  is  only  a 
temporary  reserve,  and  that  such  latent  energy  after- 
wards becomes  manifested.  Accordingly,  our  reference 
is  made  not  to  every  one  of  the  changes  of  a  machine, 
whether  organic  or  inorganic,  but  to  the  whole  partial 
system  which  constitutes  a  living  body  from  its  birth 
to  its  death,  and  an  industrial  factory  from  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  its  operations.  Then,  as  we  have 
already  said,  we  may  express  the  differential  character 
of  the  two  kinds  of  bodies  by  opposite  formulae  ;  calling 
the  living  force  expended  in  a  change/ and  the  resultant 
r  we  have — 

1.  Work  of  organized  bodies,  .  .  .  r  >  f. 

(Some  potential  energy  becomes  then  manifested.) 

2.  Work  of  inorganic  bodies,  ,  .  .  r  <  f. 

(Some  manifested  energy  then  becomes  potential.) 

3.  Work  of  cosmos  (inorganic  and  organic  bodies 
together),  .  ,  ,  r  —  f. 

Now  we  will  call  F  the  sum  of  the  energies  in  cosmos 
(whether  manifested  or  otherwise)  before  any  change  is 
effected,  and  R  the  amount  of  phenomenal  and  potential 
energies  after  the  production  of  such  change,  we  have 
then  the  formula  R  =  F.  Here  is  the  mathematical 
reason  and  limit  of  that  physiologic  principle  (or  the 


beginning,  so  to  speak)  which  is  known  as  the  principle 
of  conservation. 

In  fine,  observation  never  shows  us  a  case  of  the 
formation  of  a  living  body  without  parents,  that  is,  by 
direct  combination  of  inorganic  material,  and  if  the 
genesic  influence  is  never  observed  outside  of  living 
natures,  we  must  then  necessarily  suppose  that  material 
nature  with  its  laws  is  always  the  purpose  and  end  of 
a  supernatural  being — the  Maker — by  means  of  organic 
generation,  by  which  the  divine  idea  is  constantly  real- 
ized ;  we  do  not  see  the  same  direct  connection  of  the 
Creator  with  the  inorganic  world,  whose  activity  is 
subordinate  to  the  organic  world,  and  which  is  therefore 
left  to  act  outside  the  direct  realization  of  the  divinity. 
In  this  lies  the  only  essential  difference  between  the 
two  bodily  constituents  of  the  worlds,  which  we  can 
now  mentally  construct  simply  by  the  combination  in 
one  system  alone  of  the  concepts  acquired  of  both  the 
organic  and  inorganic  kingdoms, 

§  52.  Brief  Description  of  the  Earth,  Sun, 

AND  Moon. 

We  will  here  briefly  give  the  principal  generaliza- 
tions, inferring  them  from  the  study  of  our  planetary 
system,  but  particularly  from  the  earth,  although  in 
addition  to  this  something  must  be  said  of  the  relations, 
analogies,  and  differences  between  the  earth  and  the 
celestial  bodies,  more  especially  with  regard  to  the  sun 
and  moon.  We  will  commence  with  the  earth,  which 
we  will  consider  only  in  its  totality. 

Among  the  Greek  sages  we  see  the  idea  of  the 
rotundity   of  the  earth   already  indicated  contrary  to 


268 


VII.   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


52.  EARTH,  SUN  AND  MOON 


269 


the  irreflexive  belief  of  almost  all  humanity  up  to  the 
sixteenth  century.  But  no  practical  demonstration  was 
made  until  the  modern  age,  when  Magellan  (in  1520) 
sailed  from  Europe  to  Asia  and  back  again  by  doubling 
the  South  American  promontory.  It  is  well  known  to- 
day that  the  earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid,  whose  equa- 
torial radius  is  6,377,398  metres,  and  whose  polar  radius 
is  21,318  metres  less;  so  we  see  that  the  equatorial 
diameter  of  the  earth  is  about  eight  thousand  miles 
(12,754,796  metres).  The  density  of  the  earth,  accord- 
ing to  geologists,  is  from  five  to  six,  but  the  average 
density  in  the  superficial  layers  of  the  earth  being  from 
two  to  three,  they  have  supposed  that  in  the  interior 
of  the  earth  there  are  very  heavy  substances.  But  we 
must  not  forget  that  the  nearer  a  body  is  to  the  centre 
of  the  earth  the  weightier  relatively  it  is,  therefore  this 
condition  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  estimating 
the  true  relation  of  densities  at  different  depths.  The 
temperature  of  our  planet  is  very  variable  to  the  depth 
of  twenty-seven  metres  ;  beyond  that  it  can  be  said 
that  there  is  a  fixed  temperature,  the  thermometer 
always  registering  nearly  12°  centigrade  at  twenty-eight 
metres,  the  temperature  increasing  in  a  uniform  progres- 
sion of  one  degree  for  every  thirty  metres  of  descent, 
while,  on  the  contrary,  the  higher  we  ascend  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth  the  lower  the  temperature  becomes. 
In  order  to  simplify  the  description  of  our  planet,  it  is 
convenient  to  divide  it  into  three  parts — the  surface,  the 
exterior  or  atmosphere,  and  the  interior.  These  we  may 
call  in  correlation  mesogeos,  exogeos,  and  endogeos. 

Mesogeos  is  the  surface  of  our  planet,  and  in  its  study 
we  indicate  only  the  principal  points  concerning  the 
irregular  distribution  of  land   and  water,  and  also  of 


animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  highest  points  of  the 
earth's  surface  are  generally  less  populous  in  living 
beings  than  the  middle  heights,  and  the  most  depressed 
parts  are  covered  with  water,  in  which  pullulates  animal 
life  in  particular.  At  first  sight  there  is  found  a  great 
disproportion  between  animal  and  vegetable  life  in  these 
three  regions,  which  naturally  serves  to  unbalance  or 
perturb  cosmic  functions  ;  and  thus  change  in  cosmos  is 
originated. 

We  should  pass  far  beyond  the  limits  of  this  work 
if  we  were  to  explain  here  the  concrete  terms  referring 
to  the  different  objective  forms  of  our  planet,  as  seas 
and  continents,  mountains  and  valleys,  etc.,  so  we  shall 
restrict  ourselves  to  the  data  needed  for  our  abstract 
inferences.      We   must  first  notice  the  vast   extent  of 
water  on  the  earth's  surface,  and  its  irregular  distribu- 
tion in  relation  to  dry  land.     It  may  be  said  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  earth  is  covered  with  water,  about 
eight  parts  water  and  three  parts  land,  that  is,  almost 
thrice  as  much  water  as  land.     The  dry  land  principally 
occupies  two  opposite  sides  of  the  planet,  forming  in 
one  part  what  we  call  the  old  world,  or  Eurasia  and 
Africa,  and  in  the  other  the    new  world,  or  America 
(North  and  South).    There  are  other  portions  of  dry 
land  less  vast,  which  are  called  islands,  and  which  in 
many  cases  form  archipelagos,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  Oceanica.     The  distribution  of  land  and  water 
is  very  irregular,  water  preponderating  in  the  southern 
and  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere  in  the  proportion 
of  three  to  one.     It  is  also  worthy  of  notice  that  the 
depth  of  the  sea  is  greater  than  the  height  of  the  moun- 
tains, a  fact  which  still  further  increases  the  proportion 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth  which  is  covered  with  water. 


f*4 


270 


V//.  PLANETARY  BODIES. 


52.   EARTH,   SUN  AND  MOON, 


271 


The  uppermost  layer  of  the  earth  is  generally  made 
ground,  that  is,  a  thin  layer  of  soil  ordinarily  modified 
by  the  artificies  of  human  necessities,  but  beneath 
this  is  what  is  called  subsoil,  which  is  very  commonly 
exposed  to  view  by  the  denudation  of  waters  and  by 
artificial  constructions,  and  is  seen  by  comparison  to  be 
of  many  different  kinds,  as  calcareous  rocks,  sand,  chalk, 
clay,  etc.  Soil  and  subsoil  may  be  classified  as  sedi- 
mentary and  crystalline  ;  the  sedimentary  is  of  aquatic 
origin  formed  by  the  precipitation  of  dissolved  sub- 
stances, and  the  crystalline  is  supposed  to  have  an 
igneous  origin.  The  state  of  each  in  particular  is  the 
object  of  the  concrete  science  of  Mineralogy. 

Exogeos  or  atmosphere  is  a  gaseous  mixture  princi- 
pally constituted  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  ratio  of 
four  to  one.     It  also  includes  in  its  composition  aqueous 
vapour,  carbonic  acid,  and  a  multitude  of  microscopic 
organic  and  inorganic  corpuscles.     This  mixture,  more- 
over, besides  being  complex,  is  very  variable  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  mixed  elements  according  as  it  is  day  or 
night,  and  according  to  season,  temperature,  winds,  height, 
etc.  Air  is  nearly  eight  hundred  times  lighter  than  water  ; 
nevertheless,  the  influence  of  its  weight  over  other  bodies 
is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  because  its  height  (not 
yet  precisely  determined)  is  more  than   100  kilometres, 
and  determines  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  a  pressure 
which,  measured  by  the  mercurial  barometer,  is  equal  to  a 
column  of  j6  centimetres  with  slight  variations  of  some 
millimetres.     The  knowledge  of  the  succession  of  more 
or  less  regular  barometrical  variations,  as  well  as  of  the 
movements  of  atmospheric  translation  (winds)  does  not 
belong  to  this  chapter  because  it  presupposes  evolution 
in  time  and  explanations  of  the  reasons  of  such  changes. 


2 


Endogeos.  We  know  that  the  material  of  which  the 
earth  is  composed  is  arranged  in  layers  or  strata,  which 
the  cutting  of  any  section  shows  in  a  succession  one 
above  the  other.  To  enter  into  details  of  endogeos,  i.e. 
about  the  structure  of  these  layers,  is  to  invade  the 
province  of  a  branch  of  Mineralogy  called  Geology  which 
is  a  concrete  science.  The  only  important  fact  we  need 
treat  of  here  is  that  deduced  from  an  indication  already 
referred  to  about  subterranean  temperature,  and  that  is 
that  if  the  temperature  increases  regularly  in  relation  to 
the  depth  or  distance  from  the  surface,  it  is  clear  that 
at  the  depth  of  100  kilometres  (equal  to  the  height 
of  the  atmosphere)  the  heat  must  be  suflficient  to  melt 
all  rocks,  and  therefore  the  greater  part  of  the  interior 
of  our  planet  must  be  in  a  state  of  fusion,  the  solid  crust 
being  relatively  very  thin. 

In  the  constitution  of  cosmos  the  earth  is  no  more 
than  a  planet  of  secondary  magnitude.  Let  us  now 
consider  its  principal  relations  to  the  celestial  bodies, 
especially  to  the  sun  and  moon,  as  the  sun  is  in  the  focus 
of  the  ellipse  described  by  the  earth  in  its  orbit  and 
annual  revolution,  and  the  moon  is  a  satellite  which 
revolves  around^  the  earth.  Both,  by  their  reflection, 
greatly  influence  the  changes  of  our  planet  principally 
in  the  terrestrial  fluids,  air  and  water,  and  above  all  more 
directly  on  the  metafluid  or  progene  existing  in 
porocules  or  the  interstices  of  bodies.  We  have  already 
indicated,  and  we  will  clearly  state  in  the  next  chapter, 
that  we  must  not  consider  the  sun  as  the  prime  motor 
in  the  production  of  terrestrial  phenomena. 

The  idea  we  form  of  the  sun  by  irreflexive  observa- 
tion is  very  deceitful.  When  viewed  through  a  dark 
coloured  glass  it   appears   like   a  white  disc  perfectly 


272^ 


VIL  PLANETARY  BODIES. 


circular,  whose  diameter  does  not  seem  greater  than 
MXy  centimetres,  and  whose  surface  appears  homo- 
geneous ;  furthermore,  the  solar  disc  seems  to  move 
from  west  to  east,  following  a  curve  whose  centre  is  the 
point  in  which  the  observer  stands,  and  whose  extremes 
touch  the  visible  horizon.  We  know  that  the  more 
distant  an  object  is  the  smaller  it  appears,  thus,  calcu- 
lating the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  as  about 
ninety  millions  of  miles  in  round  numbers,  the  true 
diameter  of  the  sun  is  inferred  to  be  more  than  one 
hundred  times  greater  than  that  of  the  earth ;  the 
difference  between  the  diameter  of  the  sun  and  its 
distance  from  the  earth  being  almost  in  the  same  ratio, 
I  :  lOO.  To  form  some  comparative  idea  of  these 
relations  of  size  and  distance,  let  us  imagine  a  sphere  of 
one  metre  in  diameter  at  a  distance  of  one  hundred 
metres  to  represent  the  sun,  and  a  little  ball,  one  centi- 
metre in  diameter  to  represent  the  size  of  the  earth  and 
its  relative  position  to  the  sun.  Accordingly,  more  than 
a  million  balls  like  the  earth  would  be  necessary  to  make 
a  sphere  like  the  sun.  But  perhaps  we  can  acquire  a 
clearer  idea  of  the  extraordinary  dimensions  and  distances 
referred  to  by  the  following  calculations.  A  ball  shot 
from  a  cannon,  moving  uniformly  with  its  ordinary 
velocity,  would  take  about  thirteen  years  to  reach  the 
sun,  and  if  we  suppose  the  ball  diametrically  crossing 
the  sun  it  would  take  more  than  a  month  in  passing  to 
the  other  side,  while  it  would  need  only  about  seven 
hours  in  crossing  the  earth's  diameter.  We  can  further 
acquire  some  idea  of  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the 
sun  by  considering  that  a  train  running  at  the  rate  of 
thirty  miles  an  hour  would  take  about  350  years  to 
accomplish  the  distance. 


52.   EARTH,  SUN  AND  MOON. 


273 


Telescopic  observation  reveals  a  fact  worthy  of  men- 
tion.    The  sun  has  spots  which  appear  and  disappear 
every  fourteen  days,   reappearing   on   the  eastern  edge 
of  the  disc  about  fifteen  days  after  disappearing  from 
its  western  edge.     This  regular  movement  of  the  spots 
shows   us   that   the   sun    is  in   rotation,   and  that  this 
rotation    must   be   accomplished    in    about   twenty-six 
days.     From    this    we    infer,  in   accordance   with   the 
principles  of  our  Physiological  Theory,  that  the  sun  has 
a  continent  with  living  matter  in  order  to  produce  such 
a  rotation,  but  comparing   it  with  the   earth  we  must 
suppose  that  the  ratio  marking  the  difference  between 
land  and  water  in  the  sun  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
the  earth,  and  we  must  deduce  from  this  that  the  great 
reflecting  power  of  the  sun  is  owing  to  the  extraordinary 
extent  of  surface  covered  with  water.     We  must  also 
explain  the  lack  of  orbital  movement  in  the  sun  by  the 
fact  that  the  surface  of  the  sun  in  which  vegetation  can 
exist,   being  relatively   small,  the   force   of  propulsion 
emanating  from    it   is  not   sufficient  to  counteract  the 
resistance  of  the  solar  atmosphere,  and  so  only  a  rotatory 
movement   results.       If   the   sun    has    any   translatory 
movement  whatever,  it  must  be  a  very  slow  one,  and  so 
it  is  not  worth  taking  into  consideration  in  this  work. 

The  moon,  like  the  sun,  produces  many  deceitful 
appearances,  among  which  the  most  surprising  are  the 
different  forms  it  presents  during  its  successive  stages, 
and  we  see  that  every  twenty-seven  and  one-third  days 
the  same  phases  are  repeated.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
demonstrated  that  the  moon  is  an  entirely  round  or 
regular  sphere,  and  that  such  phases  depend  on  the 
greater  or  less  surface  which  reflects  the  sunlight.  Its 
distance  from  the  earth  is  in  round  numbers  something 

T 


-M^ 


\ 


274 


VII.   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


53.    GRAVITY. 


275 


w 


W 


more  than  three  hundred  thousand  miles  (380,000 
kilometres),  that  is,  it  is  about  three  hundred  times 
nearer  than  the  sun,  and  therefore  at  a  distance  almost 
equal  to  the  third  part  of  the  solar  diameter.  Accord- 
ingly, the  space  between  the  earth  and  the  moon  is  only 
sufficient  to  accommodate  a  body  twenty-seven  times 
smaller  than  the  sun.  The  diameter  of  the  moon  is 
almost  one-fourth  (y\)  that  of  the  earth,  and  its  size  is 
forty  times  less.  The  general  opinion  of  authors  is  that 
the  moon  has  no  atmosphere  and  lacks  water,  and 
consequently  cannot  contain  living  beings  ;  but  from  the 
general  principles  laid  down  in  this  Physiological  Theory 
we  infer  that  the  moon,  in  order  to  accomplish  its  orbital 
and  rotatory  movement,  requires  life  as  does  our  own 
planet.  It  is  not  possible  to  determine  the  forms  of 
living  matter,  but  we  have  sufficient  reason  to  affirm  its 
existence. 

Analogies  exist  between  all  the  other  heavenly 
bodies  and  the  sun,  the  earth,  or  the  moon,  but  their 
study  is  particular  or  concrete.  We  only  need  know 
as  a  general  fact  that  the  differences  among  all  of  them 
are  not  absolute,  and  the  transitions  are  graduated  in 
such  a  manner  that  relying  on  spectroscopic  observations 
we  can  proclaim  the  analogy  of  the  constituent  material 
without  any  other  difference  than  in  the  proportions  of 
its  components,  and  thus  can  add  that  in  all  the  universe 
perfect  harmony  reigns  in  the  descriptive  relations — 
those  of  space,  as  well  as  in  the  genesic — those  of 
activity  in  time. 

§  53.  Terrestrial  Gravity. 

The  force  of  gravity  is  manifested  to  our  irreflexive 
experience  in  two  different  states  ;  one  is  movement, 


J: 


which  is  seen  in  the  falling  of  bodies  through  the 
atmosphere  when  they  are  of  greater  density  than  the 
air,  and  the  other  is  the  equilibrium  ordinarily  called 
weight.  Reason  has  discovered  that  both  states  are 
but  one  which  results  from  the  intermotion  of  progenic 
and  atomic  matter  on  account  of  their  different  con- 
densation, the  ratio  being  as  54  :  lOO  (almost  i  :  2). 
That  is  to  say,  an  atom  must  be  almost  twice  as  much 
condensed  as  a  portion  of  progene  of  the  same  volume, 
but  all  the  atoms  of  the  different  atomic  substances  must 
be  of  equal  density  (the  same  weight  in  the  same  volume) 
because  all  bodies  fall  with  equal  velocity  in  an  empty 
tube.  This  relation  is,  of  course,  established,  supposing 
the  atoms  to  be  compared  in  a  tube  void  of  other 
particles. 

The  force  of  falling  bodies,  moved  by  gravity  alone, 
increases  in  direct  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  distance 
passed  through,  and  the  force  of  gravity  decreases  with, 
or  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
the  centre  of  the  earth.  Gravity  is  not  a  property  of 
matter,  it  is  only  a  mental  relation  from  quantitative 
comparisons.  Such  a  relation  is  not  constant,  it  is 
subject  to  periodical  and  irregular  variations,  as  is  proved 
by  the  measurement  of  atmospheric  pressure.  If  we 
take  into  consideration  the  maximum  and  minimum 
changes  of  atmospheric  pressure  in  different  places,  on 
different  days  and  hours,  we  may  discover  many  curious 
results,  and  explain  them  according  to  our  Physiological 
Theory  ;  but  the  consideration  of  this  point  alone  would 
be  sufficient  matter  for  a  book.  It  must  suffice  for  us 
to  remark  here  that  the  average  atmospheric  pressure 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  y6 
centimetres  of  mercury  (measured  by  the  barometer), 


1 


i\ 


'i\ 


-»-; 


276 


VII.  PLANETARY  BODIES. 


S3.    GRAVITY. 


V7 


and  that  the  widest  variation  from  that  number 
represents  only  a  few  millimetres  on  the  mercurial 
barometer.  Most  of  the  barometric  changes  are  periodi- 
cal, alternately  increasing  and  decreasing  every  six 
hours  in  harmony  with  their  proximate  cause,  the 
circulation  of  progene,  which  systematically  changes  its 
activity  according  to  the  vitality  of  both  kingdoms,  but 
principally  that  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  whose  changes 
are  in  correlation  first  with  the  position  of  the  sun  and 
second  with  that  of  the  moon. 

The  results  most  apparent  to  the  senses  arising  from 
the  perturbation  of  atmospheric  pressure,  are  the  move- 
ments of  the  two  principal  fluids  distributed  around  the 
earth— air  and  water  ;  but  the  more  noticeable  of  the 
two  are  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  waters  as  manifested  in 
tides,  the  progenic  pressure  being  greater  where  there 
are  ebb  tides  or  low  water  and  less  where  there  are  flood 
tides  or  high  water.  But  these  motions  of  great  masses 
of  water  may  also  vary  according  to  other  circumstances, 
principally  from  the  difficulty  encountered  in  passing 
through  narrow  channels  (as  in  the  Mediterranean),  and 
also  with  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  which  produces  a 
centrifugal  influence  which  affects  the  movement  of  the 

waters. 

Modern  writers  on  Physics  have  already  explained 
the  action  of  gravity  by  means  of  imponderable  ether 
(progene),  but  their  theory  is  not  complete  because  no 
explanation  has  ever  been  given  as  to  how  the  circuit 
of  the  current  in  the  system  is  closed  ;  it  was  either  left 
open  altogether,  or  in  some  cases  there  was  a  pretence  of 
closing  it,  but  in  an  incorrect  manner,  and  consequently 
the  problem  was  not  resolved  at  all.  Some  physicists 
are  opposed  to  the  ethereal  explanation  of  gravity,  and 


have  based  their  opposition  on  worthless  objections. 
They  say  that  no  analogy  can  be  established  between 
gravity  and  the  other  forms  of  action  which  are  referred 
to  propagations  of  imponderable  ether,  that  is,  progenic 
propagation,  as  sound,  light,  radiating  heat  and  elec- 
tricity, because  these  are  transmitted  with  determined 
velocity  in  opposition  to  gravity  which  is  instantaneous. 
In  addition  to  this,  they  pretend  to  find  many  other 
essential  differences  which  are  not  real ;  they  say  that 
gravity  is  a  rectilineal  and  fixed  or  invariable  force  for 
all  bodies,  that  it  is  inexhaustible,  that  it  cannot  be 
neutralized,  that  it  is  independent  of  the  nature,  volume, 
and  structure  of  bodies,  that  it  cannot  be  interrupted, 
reflected,  refracted,  or  combined,  and  finally,  that  it  only 
differs  in  a  ratio  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  mass 
and  to  the  distances  among  the  bodies  in  attraction. 

To  these  objections  we  reply  in  a  few  words  which 
will  suffice  to  convince  us  of  their  untenable  character. 
We  have  already  said  in  the  theory  of  light  that  the 
propagation  of  movement  through  interstellar  progene 
must  be  considered  instantaneous,  and  that  the  defined 
velocity  of  a  progenic  course  depends  on  the  resistance 
of  corpuscular  or  ponderable  matter,  from  which  inter- 
action the  transference  of  photothermic  radiation  into 
gravity  results.  Light  passing  through  bodies  has  a 
definite  velocity,  because  progene  is  not  continuous  in 
them,  but  distributed  in  parcels  which  are  in  a  constant 
rotatory  oscillation,  not  primordial,  but  produced  by 
their  collision  with  the  particles  which  limit  the  inter- 
stitial porocules.  Therefore,  there  is  no  reason  for  sup- 
posing any  difference  of  velocity  between  gravity  and 
all  the  other  forms  of  progenic  propagation.  It  is  true 
that  gravity  is  rectilineal  and  inexhaustible,  but  so  also 


t- 


278 


VII,   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


is  light ;  it  is  not  true  that  gravity  is  invariable,  becaus 
its  direction  varies  in  dififcrent  points,  and  it  is  also 
variable  in  intensity,  which  may  be  provoked  by  baro- 
metric changes;  neither  is  it  independent  from  tlie 
nature,  structure,  volume,  etc.,  of  bodies,  as  bodies 
lighter  than  the  air  are  raised  in  that  medium  by  the 
action  of  gravity ;  and,  finally,  gravity  may  become  a 
factor  or  component  of  a  resultant  force  as  we  see  in  f 
chemical  metamorphoses. 

The  effects  of  gravity,  that  is,  of  atmospheric 
pressure  within  the  earth,  are  extraordinary  ;  but  not  all 
subterranean  changes  are  produced  by  gravity,  as  elec- 
tric currents  passing  through  the  earth  greatly  contri- 
bute to  cause  such  effects.  The  hypothesis  supported 
by  most  geologists  is  that  in  the  interior  of  the  earth 
heat  exists  which  has  been  accumulated  since  its  forma- 
tion, and  such  heat  is  generally  considered  the  prime  * 
cause  of  all  subterranean  phenomena.  It  is  a  fact  that 
the  earth  preserves  the  same  temperature  at  the  depth 
of  28  metres  (about  100  feet) ;  from  that  depth  (where 
the  thermometer  always  registers  12°  centigrade),  the 
temperature  increases  in  a  uniform  progression  of  one 
degree  for  every  30  metres  of  descent  (in  round  numbers 
100  feet),  and  it  is  a  mathematical  conclusion  that  at  such 
a  rate  of  increase  the  heat  must  be  sufficient  to  melt 
rocks  at  the  depth  of  100  kilometres  (about  60  miles). 
Such  an  increase  of  temperature  is  principally  produced 
by  the  transference  of  gravity  into  oscillatory  move- 
ments of  progene.  Gravitating  pressure  is  greater  within 
the  earth  than  on  its  surface,  because  the  increase  is  in 
proportion  to  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  sur- 
face ;  the  compression  of  subterranean  bodies  then  is 
greater  according  to  their  depth,  and  this  is  sufficierJ 


t 

f 

? 
I. 


lit 


53-    GRAVITY. 


279 


cause  for  the  high  temperature  which  exists  in  the  inner- 
most part  of  the  earth.  Moreover,  we  repeat  that 
progenic  currents  passing  through  the  earth  are  partly- 
transferred  into  heat,  thus  increasing  the  temperature. 
Hence,  the  heat  within  the  earth  is  not  primordial ;  it  is 
derived  like  any  other  manifested  change  of  nature  ;  it 
is  only  a  proximate  cause  of  subterranean  storms  ;  it 
produces  dilatation  of  bodies,  changes  of  state  and 
chemical  metamorphoses,  all  of  which  may  produce 
either  discharges  of  progene  as  in  simple  earthquakes, 
or  the  escape  of  fluid  and  solid  matters  through  perfora- 
tions they  make  in  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  in  this 
manner  volcanoes  beincr  formed. 

Finally,  once  we  admit  the  fluidity  of  matter  within 
the  earth,  we  must  make  our  inferences  according  to  the 
results  of  fluid  pressures,  that  is,  that  the  action  of 
gravity  is  equally  distributed  throughout  all  the  interior 
mass  which  is  composed  of  liquids  and  gases,  accom- 
panied, of  course,  by  the  corresponding  progene. 

Static  laws  or  those  of  the  equilibrium  of  bodies  are 
derived  from  dynamic  laws  ;  thus,  although  the  effects 
of  gravity  are  apparently  manifested  as  repose  and 
movement,  the  cause  is  always  dynamic,  for  they  result 
from  progenic  movements,  and  in  order  to  perceive 
gravitating  movements,  falling  of  bodies  (except  in  the 
case  of  falling  meteors),  it  was  formerly  necessary  to 
employ  a  quantity  of  living  force  in  order  to  elevate 
the  bodies  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  of  gravity. 
Accordingly  there  is  a  constant  neutralization  in  the 
world  between  living  or  manifested  forces  and  gravity, 
w^hen  bodies  do  not  exactly  follow  a  direction  towards 
the  centre  of  the  earth. 


28o 


VII.   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


i^' 


%K 


§  54.  Theory  of  the  Planetary  Movements  of 
THE  Earth  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism. 

The  diurnal  and  annual  movements  of  our  planet 
are  known  only  by  reason,  for  our  irreflexive  sensations 
refer  such  movements  to  the  celestial  bodies ;  but  since 
the  time  of  Galileo  they  have  been  admitted  and 
recognized  as  movements  of  the  earth,  so  proving  that 
the  senses  are  deceived  by  the  phenomenon  called 
aberration  of  sight. 

It  is  inexact  to  say  that  the  planets  are  animated  by 
forces,  and  the  error  is  twofold  when  it  is  said  that  the 
planetary  forces  are  two,  one  instantaneous  and  the 
other  continuous.  This  last,  astronomers  say,  is 
the  force  of  interplanetary  attraction,  and  the  former 
they  suppose  to  have  existed  only  at  the  moment  when 
the  celestial  bodies  were  set  in  motion,  adding  that 
the  impulsive  effect  of  such  a  force  still  persists  by 
virtue  of  the  inertia  of  matter.  This  explanation  is 
fully  contradicted  by  the  fundamental  principle  of 
mechanism — conservation  of  energy — which  in  other 
words  is  the  indisputable  law  of  inertia. 

The  earth,  as  a  whole,  is  in  translatory  divergent 
movement  following  the  direction  of  an  ellipse,  and  it  is 
at  the  same  time  in  spheroidal  rotation  ;  the  first  move- 
ment is  called  orbital  and  the  second  rotatory.  The 
orbital  movement  is  that  which  the  earth  follows  around 
the  sun,  but  at  a  great  distance  from  it,  closing  the  curve 
every  year;  this  movement  therefore  being  annually 
repeated.  The  rotatory  movement  is  the  daily  move- 
ment of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  this  being  an  imaginary 
line  passing  through  the  earth's  centre  from  north  to 
south,  and  on  which  it  is  supposed  to  rotate. 


54.   PLANETARY  MOVEMENTS. 


281 


1) 


Both  movements  depend  on  the  same  cause,  this  is, 
the  generating  power  of  living  matter  by  which  im- 
ponderable matter  first  and  ponderable  matter  after- 
wards are  constantly  disturbed,  progene  thus  becoming 
the  primary  effect  of  material  circulation  throughout 
the  universe. 

Let  us  now  clearly  and  precisely  determine  the 
movements  of  progene,  which  are  the  origin  of  the  total 
movements  of  the  earth.  For  this  purpose  it  will  be 
sufficient  for  us  to  know  the  great  influence  of  sunshine 
on  green  vegetation,  without  the  necessity  of  taking  into 
consideration  either  the  other  planets,  or  the  stars  of 
other  systems,  as  these  only  act  in  the  modality  of  the 
change,  but  not  as  determining  causes.  In  order  to 
understand  more  thoroughly  the  production  of  the  total 
movements  of  the  earth  by  self  propulsion  instead  of 
by  mutual  and  distant  attractions,  let  us  imagine  it  in 
a  moment  of  repose,  that  is,  in  a  fixed  position  in 
relation  with  the  sun,  one  half  illuminated  (day),  and 
the  other  half  in  shade  (night).  The  rays  of  light  are 
translatory  progene  which  is  absorbed  by  the  chlorophyl 
of  the  green  plants.  The  moment  progene  is  condensed 
by  plants  in  a  quantity  sufficient  to  destroy  the  com- 
binational resistance  of  the  elements  of  carbonic  acid 
and  water,  a  great  elimination  oi  oxygen  takes  place,  but 
some  part  remains  in  the  plant  with  the  carbo?iy  and 
these  two  elements  combined  with  hydrogen  form  new 
compounds  called  hydro-carburates ;  these  ternary 
principles  afterwards  combine  with  nitrogen  and  thus 
form  nitro-carburates.  These  combinations  are  not 
permanent ;  in  the  act  of  disassimilation  from  organism 
they  are  decomposed  by  gradual  oxidation  for  which 
the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  the  elimination  of  progene 


.ft 

•  * 


282 


VII.   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


54.   PLANETARY  MOVEMENTS. 


283 


iiT 


are  necessary.  This  oxidation  is  the  predominant 
metamorphosis  of  animals  during  day  and  night,  though 
it  is  more  exaggerated  during  the  sleeping  hours,  which 
are  generally  in  the  night  ;  the  metamorphoses  of 
organic  composition  are  predominant  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  during  the  day,  principally  in  those  parts 
containing  a  great  quantity  of  chlorophyl.  Light,  too, 
is  an  affluent  stimulus  for  the  formation  of  the  carburates 
before  mentioned,  and  although  oxidation  or  interstitial 
respiration  is  constant  in  the  vegetable  as  well  as  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  it  is  not  externally  manifested  in  green 
plants  during  the  day  because  the  products  of  oxidation 
are  taken  by  the  plant  itself  to  supply  its  great  com- 
binational necessity  instead  of  being  interchanged  with 
the  external  medium.  The  chief  consequence  of  these 
transferences  determined  by  vitality  is  the  propulsion 
of  the  earth  by  the  circulating  progene  in  two  different 
directions,  whose  resultant,  according  to  the  laws  of 
molar  mechanics,  is  a  double  divergent  movement, 
rotatory  and  parabolic.  The  forces  in  reference  are, 
first,  a  propulsion  in  the  direction  of  the  sunlight  pro- 
duced by  the  absorption  of  progene  which  presupposes 
transference  into  ponderable  motion  ;  and,  second,  a 
propulsion  in  an  almost  contrary  direction,  produced 
by  the  escape  of  progene  from  all  the  organisms  existing 
in  the  shaded  hemisphere.  That  is  to  say,  in  the 
illuminated  hemisphere  the  oxidation  does  not  compen- 
sate the  changes  of  organic  composition,  while  in  the 
shaded  hemisphere  the  oxidation  predominates,  and  it 
may  be  practically  said  that  vitality  during  the  night 
only  produces  the  final  result  of  organic  combustion  by 
the  effect  of  which  progene  is  freed  and  escapes  into  the 
atmosphere  which  is  deficient  in  it,  because  during  the 


night    it  does    not  directly  receive  any  from    solar    re- 
flexion.    The  propulsion   of  progene  must   be  greater 
where  the  oxidation  is  most  active,  and  this  occurs  in 
that  part  of  the  shaded  hemisphere  which  is  the  last  to 
receive   the   sunlight.     Accordingly,  this   force   of  the 
night  current  is  produced  in  a  manner  similar   to  the 
movement  of  a  rocket,  that  is,  by  discharge  of  progene. 
Such  a  current  propels  the  earth  in  a  direction  opposite 
to  the  point  where  the  progene  escapes,  as  when  water 
running  from  a  pipe  produces  a  pressure  in  a  direction 
contrary  to  that  in  which  it  flows.     Of  course,  the  ex- 
planation of  the  elliptical  form  of  the  terrestrial  orbit, 
and  the  alternating  position  of  the  earth  changing  every 
six  months   from  its  aphelion  to  its  perihelion  is  also 
based  on  the  periodicity  of  vegetable  life.     There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  cause  of  the  elliptical  revolution  of  the 
earth  is  the  evolution  of  vegetable  life,  because  when 
the  total  amount  of  vegetative  assimilation  on  the  earth 
increases,  the  day  or  light  propulsion  predominates,  the 
effect  of  the  absorption  of  progene  being  then  stronger  ; 
then  the  earth  is  separated  from  the  sun  until  the  power 
of  the   sun's    rays,    diminishing   with    the   distance,    is 
compensated    or   equilibrated    by    the    night   currents. 
When  the  total   amount  of  vegetable  assimilation  de- 
creases and  the  night  or  escaping  propulsion  predomi- 
nates, the  effect  of  the  absorption  of  progene  becomes 
weaker,  and  then  the  earth  again  approaches  the  sun 
until  the  rays  of  light  become  very  powerful  (as  they 
increase  in  strength  in    proportion  to  proximity)  and 
can  compensate  the  night  propulsion.     The  succession 
of  such  changes  naturally  occurs  every  six  months. 

The  position  of  the  earth's  axis  in  relation  to  the 
sun  is  also  an  effect  of  the  periodical  function  of  vegeta- 


:'-j'j; 


\ 


284 


VII.   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


55.   RECAPITULATION. 


285 


tion,  which  is  not  equally  exuberant  at  the  same  time 
in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  the  progenia  propulsion  being 
always  greater  in  those  places  where  the  activity  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  is  greatest. 

We  have  already  explained  three  phenomena  which 
are  manifested  as  permanent  molar  movements  of  the 
earth  ;  one,  gravity  which  is  partial  in  its  manifestations, 
and   the   two  others   rotatory   and   orbital,   which   are 
movements  of  the  whole  earth.     Another  molar  move- 
ment, partial  like  gravity,  is  also  constantly  manifested 
by  the  direction  of  the    magnetic  needle  towards    the 
poles.     The  constant  disturbance  produced  by  vitality 
on   the   surface   of   the   earth   determines   some   other 
currents  of  progene  (besides   those  before  mentioned) 
which,  as  Ampere   said,  convert  the   terrestrial   globe 
into  a  large  magnetic  ellipsoid.     The  most  important 
of  these  currents  flows  towards  the  poles  from  a  neutral 
line  in  the  equatorial  regions,  which  is  called  the  mag- 
netic meridian.     This  meridian  does  not  coincide  with 
the  equatorial  line,  it  is  inclined  to  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, as   there   land,   and   therefore  vegetation,   pre- 
dominates over  that  of  the  southern  hemisphere.     This 
current,  which  may  be  called  the  polar  current,  depends, 
as  we  have  already  said,  on  the  difference  of  the  vital 
process    between   the  life  of  the   polar  regions,  where 
animals  almost  alone  exist,  and  that  of  the  equatorial 
regions,  where  vegetation,  and,  consequently,  chlorophyl 
is  more  abundant.     There  is  still  another  cause  for  the 
deficiency  of  progene  in  the  polar  regions:    the  light 
there   acts   with    less    intensity,  and    consequently   the 
direct   supply   of    progene    from    the   sun    is    smaller. 
Between   these  two  causes  such  a  lack  of  progene  in 
the  polar  regions  is  sometimes  produced  that  the  polar 


S 


I 
4 


currents    become   luminous,   the   aurora    borealis    and 
similar  peculiar  luminous  phenomena  thus  originating. 

§  55.  Recapitulation  of  the  Concept  of 

Planetary  Bodies. 

All  the  changes  of  the  world  may  be  divided  into 
two  groups,  phenomenal  or  manifested,  and  potential 
or  latent.  There  are  two  kinds  of  phenomenal  changes, 
total  and  partial  ;  in  the  former  we  see  the  movements 
of  bodies,  while  in  the  latter  the  movements  are 
recognized  only  by  the  intelligence  which  refers  them 
either  to  the  two  constituents  of  bodies — molecules 
and  progene,  or  to  progene  alone.  From  this  arises 
our  distinction  between  molecular  and  progenic  phe- 
nomena, each  comprising  two  kinds,  which,  with  molar 
movements,  gives  us  five  kinds  of  natural  phenomena. 
Furthermore,  we  have  already  mentioned  another  kind 
of  change  which  we  have  denominated  potential,  and 
this  gives  us  the  sixth  material  change,  as  shown  in  the 
following  correlative  order  : — 

1.  Molar  phenomena  :  visible  movements  and  equili- 
brium of  bodies. 

2.  Thermic    phenomena :    changes   of   temperature 
and  of  physical  state. 

3.  Chemical    phenomena :    metamorphoses    in    the 
composition  of  bodies. 

4.  Acoustic   phenomena :    oscillatory  movement   of 
progene. 

5.  Optic    phenomena  :     photothermic    emission    of 
progene. 

6.  Potential  changes  :  electricity,  latent  and  radiating 
heat. 


286 


VIl.   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


55.   RECAPITULATION. 


287 


9f 


Putting  these  changes  together,  we  form  the  concept 
of  the  motion  throughout  the  world,  establishing  a  very- 
remarkable  difference  among  the  three  kinds  of  physical 
changes,  as  in  molar  phenomena  the  body  changes  its 
place  in  totality,  although  it  may  or  may  not  change 
the  relative  disposition  of  its  corpuscular  and  progenic 
constituents  ;  in  molecular  phenomena  there  is  a  change 
of  place  in  the  minute  corpuscles  of  bodies,  and  therefore 
a  change  in  the  two  corporeal  constituents  without  any 
total  movement ;  and  in  progenic  changes  (phenomenal 
and  potential)  the  motion  is  in  progene  alone  apart 
from  molar  or  molecular  movement.  All  these  changes 
must  necessarily  take  place  in  planetary  bodies.  Bear 
in  mind  that  the  distinction  in  physiological  changes 
between  propagations  and  transferences  is  relative,  as  in 
fact  all  material  change  consists  simply  in  propagation 
of  movement,  and  never  in  a  true  transference,  but  the 
propagation  may  be  either  homologous  or  heterologous, 
that  is,  without  or  with  change  in  the  form  of  movement, 
and  from  this  arises  our  relative  distinction  between 
simple  propagations  (homologous  changes)  and  trans- 
ferences (heterologous  propagations).  The  most  re- 
markable thing  in  transferences  is  that  the  intermediate 
change  is  not  ordinarily  manifested,  almost  all  taking 
place  in  the  organic  and  inorganic  world  by  means  of 
potential  transmission.  Thus  the  conversion  of  molar 
movement  into  heat,  of  this  into  chemical  action,  and  of 
molecular  phenomena  into  progenic  changes,  and  vice 
versa,  always  need  in  other  worlds  as  well  as  in  ours 
the  intermediate  action  of  progene.  There  can  only  be 
a  direct  conversion  when  there  is  a  transference  of 
molecular  change  into  molar  movement,  as  occurs  in  the 
transference  of  heat,  or  of  the  movements  of  physical 


state,  or  of  chemical  reaction  into  utile  molar  work  or 
into  dangerous  explosion  ;  and  this  kind  of  transference 
is  produced  in  order  to  determine  planetary  movements. 
In  a  final  analysis  all  the  changes  of  the  world,  inclu- 
ding all  functions  of  organic  bodies,  are  reduced  to  the 
different  kinds  of  propagation  of  movement  which  have 
been  comprehended  in  "Analytic  Physiology."    We  must 
not  forget  that  mental  activity  must  be  separated  from 
the  synthetic  concept  of  vitality  in  which  there  is  only 
that  which  is  properly  organic.     Viewed  from  an  etio- 
logical standpoint,  vitality  has  a  very  important  natural 
condition,  as    it    is   the    first  effect    or    immediate  con- 
sequence of  the  true  cause  of  mechanical  order  in  the 
cosmic  system,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  the  first  operation  of 
the  sole  causal  law  through  which  the  direct  purpose 
or   immediate   aim    of    the    Creator   is   effected.       But 
circumscribing  ourselves  to  the  limits  of  material  nature, 
vitality  is  the  object  of  our  study  only  in  the  succession 
of  potential  and  phenomenal  effects,  i.e.  in  the  functions 
of  living  bodies. 

By  the  generating  activity  of  living  matter  a  current 
of  progene  is  formed  whose  circle  is  complete  ;  progene 
in  such  a  course  interacts  with  ponderable  matter,  and 
from  this  interaction  four  constant  forms  of  molar  change 
result :  gravity,  orbital  and  rotatory  movements  of  the 
earth,  and  terrestrial  magnetism.  In  order  to  convey 
more  clearly  an  idea  of  the  complete  circulation  of  pro- 
gene, we  may  compare  it  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
and  in  accordance  with  this  parallel  divide  it  into  a 
greater  and  lesser  circulation,  and  the  greater  may  be 
subdivided  into  afferent,  efferent,  and  communicating 
currents.  The  heart  being  represented  by  the  living 
world,  and    the    great  capillary  net  by   the    ocean   of 


2S8 


VII.   PLANETARY  BODIES. 


^ 


interstellar  progene  (communicating  current),  we  have 
then  this  parallel  :  progene  flows  towards  the  illuminated 
hemisphere  from  the  sun  (afferent  current),  passes  round 
(effect  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth)  to  the  shaded  hemi- 
sphere, where  by  oxidation  it  is  set  at  liberty  (efferent 
current),  and  irradiated  through  the  atmosphere  to  the 
great  ocean  of  progene  until  it  collides  with  the  bodies 
which  constitute  the  ideal  dome,  and  is  newly  reflected 
back  by  them  to  our  planetary  system  in  which  there 
is  a  great  focus — the  sun — for  the  confluence  of  all 
planetary  emissions.  From  this  we  must  infer  that  the 
same  change  which  takes  place  in  the  earth  takes  place 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  all  the  planets,  and  as  the 
intensity  of  radiation  decreases  with  the  distance  from 
the  sun,  the  focus  of  all  the  planetary  orbits  is  the 
point  where  the  sum  of  all  radiations  is  greatest ;  and 
in  addition  to  this  we  must  take  into  consideration  the 
immense  extension  of  the  sun's  reflecting  surface,  and 
also  its  emissive  surface,  which  cannot  be  a  small  one. 
Accordingly,  the  rotatory  and  translatory  movements  of 
planets  and  satellites,  and  the  rotatory  movement  of  the 
sun  are  produced  by  progenic  currents  which  are  prin- 
cipally the  effects  of  contrary  reaction  in  vegetation 
during  the  day  and  night.  All  planetary  bodies  radiate 
heat  as  a  necessary  emission  from  the  organisms 
existing  on  them,  but  the  radiation  becomes  luminous 
by  the  confluence  or  combination  of  many  thermic  radi- 
ations in  a  sphere  so  vast  in  extension  as  the  sun. 
Light  also  may  result  as  the  direct  effect  of  very  active 
combustion,  as  in  comets,  but  this  is  a  rare,  and  not  the 
ordinary  manner  of  its  production. 

All   the  phenomena  of   "universal   attraction,"   or, 
better  to   say,  atomic  gravitation^  have   their   rational 


55.  RECAPITULATION'. 


289 


explanation  in  physiological  synthesis  as  resultants  of 
organic  movements  or  vitality.  We  have  explained 
terrestrial  magnetism  in  the  same  way  as  gravity,  plane- 
tary movements,  and  chemical  metamorphoses,  all  of 
which  may  be  comprehended  under  one  denomination, 
as  magnetisffi  for  instance,  differentiating  its  modalities 
by  prefixing  certain  words.  In  this  manner  magnetism 
should  then  mean  all  the  states  of  ponderable  matter 
directly  produced  by  the  transference  of  translatory 
movement  of  progene,  and  molecular  magnetism  may  be 
substituted  for  the  phrases  atomic  and  molecular  attrac- 
tions. Cohesion  and  affinity  have  been  explained  in 
the  theories  of  Heat  and  Chemistry  by  the  intermotion 
of  molecular  gravity  with  progenic  oscillation,  and  we 
now  add  that  the  result  is  a  true  molecular  magnetism, 
which  may  be  in  a  state  of  equilibrium  or  of  movement, 
the  former  resulting  when  the  centrifugal  force  of  heat 
and  the  centripetal  one  of  gravity  are  equal,  and  the 
latter  when  one  of  the  two  predominates. 

Thus  the  harmony  in  the  world  is  perfect  ;  the  pro- 
genic currents  are  the  sole  agent  of  magnetic  phe- 
nomena ;  they  move  the  molecules  to  their  chemical 
metamorphoses,  and  are  also  the  occult  motor  of  the 
immense  masses  of  the  planetary  systems.  That  is  to 
say,  planetary  movements  and  those  of  molecules  in 
chemical  changes  are  produced  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  magnetic  movements  of  the  earth  ;  all  three  result 
from  the  transference  of  the  currents  of  progene  into 
translatory  movement  of  pondera,ble  n^atter. 


U 


=  t 


I 


290 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE, 


56.   IS  IT  AN  ORGANISMS 


291 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONCEPT  OF  THE   UNIVERSE. 

§  56.  Is  the  universe  an  organism  or  a  mechanism  ?— §  57.  All  objects  in 
the  universe  qualitatively  identical-^  58.  Propagation  of  movement 
throughout  the  universe— §  59.  General  criticism  of  the  doctrines  of 
evolution— §  60.  Additional  argument  against  transformism— §  61. 
The  doctrine  of  Cosmogony  is  not  physiologic— §  62.  Causal  determi- 
nation of  the  universe— §  63.  Recapitulation  of  the  concept  of  the 
universe. 

I  56.  Is  THE  Universe  an  Organism  or  a 

Mechanism  ? 

In  the  dispute  regarding  the  question  as  to  whether 
the  universe  is  an  organism  or  a  mechanism,  the  terms 
are  not  set  forth  by  the  majority  of  writers  exactly  as 
they  should  be  defined.  Most  authors,  especially  those 
circumscribed  to  Physiological  Sciences,  have  no  clear 
and  complete  idea  of  the  concept  of  mechanism,  as  they 
affirm  its  exclusive  existence,  comprehending  in  it  the 
whole  cosmos  ;  while  most  philosophers,  speculators  of 
the  mind  and  of  the  divinity,  proclaim  the  great  truth — 
the  necessity  of  the  organic  conception  of  the  universe, 
and  therefore  the  existence  of  an  organizer.  The  uni- 
verse, properly  interpreted,  is  in  principle  an  organism, 
but  such  an  affirmation  does  not  exclude  the  real  exist- 
ence of   mechanism,  if  this  is  limited  to   explain  the 


efifects  of  physical  cosmos,  objective  things  or  material 
nature.  And  for  this  reason  great  success  has  recently 
been  experienced  in  Physiological  Science  upon  the  sole 
basis  of  mechanical  theory,  but  such  progress  has  been 
erroneously  interpreted  by  most  physicists,  who  have 
fallen  into  materialism,  confounding  what  is  purely 
phenomenal,  that  is,  the  description  of  the  effected  form 
of  objects,  with  the  cause  itself,  so  identifying  their  ideas 
with  positivism,  protesting  against  the  possibility  of  our 
intelligence  acquiring  any  other  knowledge  than  that 
given  by  phenomena  and  their  laws,  without  admitting 
the  existence  of  a  Primordial  Cause. 

Physiological  Theory  has  demonstrated  the  essential 
necessity  of  unity  in  nature,  and  certainly  a  system  cannot 
be  constructed  of  independent  parts  without  mutual  rela- 
tions of  principle  and  aim  ;  the  whole  universe  cannot 
be  explained  by  a  causal  sum  or  aggregation,  but  by 
causal  union  of  the  parts.  Such  a  cause  must  neces- 
sarily be  a  supernatural,  supreme  intelligence  which 
must  be  conscious  ;  an  unconscious  intelligence  is  an 
impossibility,  as  the  terms  are  in  plain  contradiction. 
The  unconscious  intelligences  interposed  as  immediate 
agents  of  nature,  like  the  vital  principle  or  force  admitted 
by  vitalism, are  fantastic,  incomprehensible  things, because 
our  mind  contains  but  two  kinds  of  perceptible  notions, 
that  of  our  own  consciousness  and  that  of  matter  ;  by 
the  first,  whose  data  are  qualitative  perceptions  intrinsic 
to  the  mind,  we  infer  the  knowledge  of  the  immaterial 
or  supernatural  (soul  and  God),  and  by  the  material 
notion,  whose  data  are  quantitative  perceptions  extrinsic 
to  the  mind,  we  acquire  the  knowledge  of  physical  nature 
— material  object  or  mechanism,  composed  of  ponder- 
able and  imponderable  matter.     The  material  concept 


292 


VUI.   THE   UNIVERSE, 


56.   IS  IT  AN  ORGANISMS 


293 


is  different  from  but  not  opposed  to  the  mental  one,  and 
our  understanding  excludes  from  reality,  and  considers 
as  nothing,  or  simply  as  names  of  imaginary  things,  all 
which  is  not  one  of  the  two— either  intelligent  cause  or  me- 
chanical effect.     Furthermore,  mechanism  is  determined 
in  accordance  with  the  supreme  idea  or  law  which,  like 
its  dictator,  can  only  be  good  with  absolute  perfection, 
and  then  it  must  be  one  and  invariable  ;  this  is  con- 
firmed by  the  uniformity  or  constant  regularity  of  nature, 
and  by  the  truth  of  the  mechanical  laws  which,  being 
derived  from  the  divine  idea  by  means  of  its  engendering 
influence  upon   living  bodies,  are    never  capricious  or 
irregular.    Accordingly,  Physiological  Theory  recognizes 
the  mechanical  laws  acquired  by  rational  experience, 
and  yet,  while  it  admits  the  truths  of  Mechanics,  it  also 
admits  the  existence  of  the   True   Cause,   because,   if 
mechanical  ideas  are  considered  independent  of  a  cause, 
we  should  affirm  the  abstraction  of  effects  without  cause, 
and  then  we  would  be  obliged  to  refer  ourselves  not  to 
the  complete  system,  but  to  the  object  of  physiological 
science  alone,  that  is,  to  the  redistribution  of  matter  in 
movement,  and  this  does  not  embrace  all  which  exists 
in  the  universe. 

Our  division  of  theoretical  or  philosophic  sciences 
into  Physiology  and  Metaphysics  removes  the  traditional 
opposition  between  physicists  and  metaphysicians,  each 
having  a  very  well-defined  province.  Metaphysical 
explanations  go  beyond  what  nature  offers  to  sensual 
experience,  that  is,  what  is  not  within  the  reach  of  our 
senses,  and  cannot  be  inferred  from  sensual  data  but 
by  pure  reason  ;  this  is  the  reference  of  things  and 
changes  to  the  Prime  Cause  interpreting  the  end  of 
manifested  activities.     Physiological  or  physical  expla- 


t 


nations  teach  in  what  manner  a  definite  state  of  things 
results  from  another  state  which  is  its  antecedent  in 
accordance  with  general  laws,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
properties  of  a  compound  depend  on  those  of  its  com- 
ponents ;  but  physical  explanations  must  implicitly 
assume  the  total  system,  although  expressly  considering 
only  its  mechanical  laws  without  any  attempt  to  interpret 
them,  or  to  inquire  which  is  the  beginning  or  which  is 
the  end.  Therefore,  if  a  mechanical  law  is  taken  as  a 
basis  of  Physiology,  it  always  implies  the  existence  of 
the  author  of  the  law.  The  physicist  must  follow  the 
advice  of  the  metaphysician  in  order  to  correct  his 
errors  in  the  fundamental  concepts  of  nature  (matter 
and  force,  mass  and  movement,  protoplasm  and  irrita- 
bility, etc.),  instead  of  denying  or  treating  such  advice 
with  disdain,  as  most  of  them  do  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  metaphysician  must  gather  physiological 
knowledge  in  order  to  guide  his  ideas  by  the  natural 
facts  which  are  the  sensual  fruit  of  the  activity  of  the 
Creator. 

All  manifested  changes  have  a  common  origin ; 
organic  generation  is  the  causal  determination  of  phe- 
nomena in  all  material  aggregates,  whether  living  or 
not,  and  this  common  character  is  discovered  by  our 
Physiological  Theory.  Starting  from  this  fundamental 
distinction  between  living  and  non-living  bodies,  we 
afiirm  that  in  the  connection  with  the  Primordial  Cause 
or  Creating  Activity  only  organic  generation  is  under 
its  direct  and  continuous  influence,  and  so  we  can  then 
understand  the  relative  validity  of  mechanical  laws  in 
the  universal  system.  Such  laws  are  only  a  comple- 
ment or  contribution  to  the  notion  of  the  universe  in 
which  unity  presides  over  the  beginning  and  the  end 


•  J- 


294 


VIIL   THE   UNIVERSE, 


of  all  things.  Our  task  is  not  to  establish  the  proofs 
of  such  an  affirmation  ;  but  we  declare  such  a  truth  in 
order  to  put  ourselves  in  opposition  to  pure  mechanical 
ideas,  and  to  exclusive  atomism,  which  try  to  explain  all 
the  system  merely  by  the  accumulation  of  material 
elements,  every  one  independent  of  the  system,  sup- 
posing activity  is  all  inherent  to  matter  or  to  atoms. 

The  universe  cannot  be  explained  by  mechanism  in 
its  primordial  effects — creation  and  organic  generation — 
so  that  the  concept  of  mechanism,  excluding  causal 
determination,  assumes  but  a  partial  system  of  nature, 
comprehending  in  the  signification  of  this  word  that 
which  is  manifested  and  inferred  from  the  data  of 
extrinsic  experience  ;  in  this  sense  Mechanics  and 
Physiology  are  synonymous,  and  their  final  aim  is  only 
to  discover  the  laws  of  mutual  connection  of  the  pheno- 
mena within  the  derived  effects  of  the  universal  system. 
Mechanic  explanations,  then,  do  not  go  beyond  organic 
generation,  a  fact  that  cannot  be  explained  without 
having  recourse  to  something  outside  of  mechanism, 
while  by  mechanism  itself  we  can  clearly  account  for  all 
the  other  facts  in  which  we  do  not  need  to  refer  directly 
to  the  true  cause  of  the  universe. 

Accordingly,  Physiology,  including  Molar  Mechanics, 
Physics,  Chemistry,  and  Biology,  is  a  science  altogether 
mechanical,  but  the  mechanical  ideas  are  limited  to 
the  assumption  of  the  partial  cosmic  system  with  its 
material  changes  and  laws  alone,  so  that  a  physiological 
explanation  consists  in  teaching  how  a  derived  or 
secondary  effect  is  produced,  leaving  us  nothing  as  to 
the  Primordial  Cause  and  effect  save  the  belief  that  there 
is  a  purpose  in  the  process,  as  the  integrity  of  cosmic 
mechanism  in  its  actual  state  consists  not  only  in  the 


57.    QUALITATIVE  IDENTITY  OF  ALL   OBJECTS,     295 

continuity  of  movement,  but  also  in  the  natural  depen- 
dence among  the  members  or  parts  of  the  system  which 
are  all  under  the  same  general  laws. 


§  57.  All  Objects  in  the  Universe  qualitatively 

Identical. 

We  have  affirmed  in  the  Analysis  of  Cosmos  that 
matter  is  everywhere  equal  in  its  attributive  conditions 
or  qualities  ;  that  all  objects  are  of  the  same  substance 
(which  differs  only  in  numerical  or  geometrical  propor- 
tions), and  of  the  same  form  of  activity,  which  is  always 
movement,  and  which  is  propagated  with  conservation 
of  energy.  We  now  add  some  explanation  in  order  to 
give  such  a  proposition  its  universal  concept,  extending 
it  to  organic  as  well  as  to  inorganic  bodies,  to  celestial 
as  well  as  to  terrestrial  ones.  For  this  we  need  only 
apply  the  arguments  given  on  the  abstract  concept  of 
matter  to  the  concrete  aggregation  of  all  the  objects 
constituting  material  cosmos. 

The  substantial  identity  of  all  objects  of  the  universe 
is  a  question  beyond  practical  resolution,  since  by  ex- 
perience we  cannot  transform  all  objects  into  one  and 
the  same  chemical  element  ;  but  the  character  of  this 
question  is  not  purely  descriptive  ;  it  is  genesic,  and  as 
such  it  is  not  a  matter  of  the  senses  but  of  reason ; 
consulting  this,  we  know  that  the  propagations  through 
the  senses  and  nerves  cannot  be  propagations  of  different 
quality  but  only  of  quantity,  because  the  object  does 
not  touch  the  centres  where  the  proximate  change  to 
the  presentation  of  ideas  is  produced,  and  therefore  that 
qualitative  differences,  when  they  make  reference  to 
objects,  depend  on  the  reactions  provoked  in  the  mind 


V 


s«. 


296 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


by  the  propagating  movements,  which  vary  only  in 
quantitative  relations.  If  there  could  be  differences  of 
quality  among  material  objects  they  could  not  be 
observed  by  our  perceptions,  so  that  the  reference  of 
qualities  to  objects  is  a  consequence  of  our  ignorance, 
as  in  order  to  know  the  object  completely  we  must 
discover  the  quantitative  relations  of  all  its  changes, 
explaining  in  this  manner  all  their  analogies  and  differ- 
ences. We  repeat  that  the  perceptions  of  the  qualities 
only  give  us  the  knowledge  of  the  mental  subject,  as 
they  connote  its  power  or  capacity  of  objective  repre- 
sentation. 

Hence  all  objective  properties  consist  in  relative 
differences  resulting  from  the  different  collocation  or 
redistribution  of  matter  in  movement ;  and  although 
such  identity  of  quality  among  all  the  constituents 
of  the  universe  cannot  be  affirmed  as  an  irreflexive  fact, 
it  is  a  principle  of  thought  inferred  from  experimental 
limits,  as  the  data  of  sensual  observation  can  never  pass 
from  the  determination  of  relative  or  quantitative  laws. 

Most  physicists  explain  material  or  objective  inter- 
action by  forces  acting  between  things  and  producing 
their  sensual  effects  ;  thus  they  explain  action  at  a 
distance  by  the  empty  phrase  "  universal  attraction," 
which,  according  to  their  view,  must  be  a  force  of 
omnipotent  and  omnipresent  power,  as  it  can  act  through 
void  spaces  and  through  interposed  objects ;  they  ex- 
plain calorific  changes  by  an  equally  empty  phrase, 
"  repulsive  force,"  which  they  suppose  is  originated  by 
an  inherent  elasticity  in  imponderable  ether.  If  this 
really  constituted  cosmic  mechanism  our  proposition  of 
the  attributive  identity  of  all  objects  would  be  erroneous, 
because  the  existence  of  such  opposite  forces  of  attrac- 


ts 


57.    QUALITATIVE  IDENTITY  OF  ALL   OBJECTS,     297 

tion  and  repulsion  would  denote  the  existence  of  some 
essential  quality  inherent  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  every 
kind  of  matter.     But  we   know  already  that  physical 
forces  are  nothing  more  than  names  for  mental  abstrac- 
tions, and  being  only  ideal  names  they  cannot  explain 
anything  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  even  if  forces  were 
really  things,  the  question  would  still  remain  unresolved, 
as  we  cannot  say  what  things  really  are.     We  must 
deny  that  objects  act  by  the  effect  of  forces,  and  con- 
sequently to  say  that  the  particles  of  a  body  or  different 
bodies  are  united  by  their  attractions  is  only  to  describe 
a  fact,  and,  what  is  still  worse,  to  describe  it  in  improper 
terms,   because   matter   cannot   be   attracted  as    if  its 
different    portions  were   drawn    together   by   inflexible 
cords.     The    sole    material  reality  is   in   the   objective 
things   themselves,  and    there    is    nothing   else    among 
them  ;  they  are  not  independent,  but  under  the  law  of 
the  director  of  universal  organism. 

We  repeat  that  the  mind  needs  the  constant  atten- 
tion and  guide  of  reason  in  order  not  to  be  deceived  by 
the  abstract   signification  of  some  words  and  mistake 
them  as  representing  realities,  as,  for  instance,  when  we 
speak  of  mass  and  movement  in  Mechanics  we  must 
not  think  that  they  are  independent  things  of  different 
qualities ;  movement  simply  represents  the  abstract  idea 
of   the    points  where   an   object   may   be   successively 
changing  its  place,  and  with  such  points  we  can  draw  a 
continuous  line  which  marks  the  course  of  the  object. 
There  is  nothing  attributive  to  the  thing  itself,  for  we 
suppose  it  in    movement  ;  the  differences  between  an 
object  in  relative  repose  and  in  movement  are  differences 
of  reason,  marking  either  simply  the  relation  in  space, 
that  is,  the  direction,  or  the  compound  relation  of  space 


298 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE. 


and  time  called  velocity,  which  is  the  peculiar  or  charac- 
teristic measure  of  movement,  and  which  is  determined 
by  the  space  run  over  in  the  unity  of  time  (a  second). 

When  movement  is  variable  (as  is  always  the  case 
in  nature)  the  velocity  is  determined,  supposing  that 
the  movement  is  uniform,  the  moment  we  try  to  deter- 
mine it ;  this  implies  that  movement  is  completely 
different  from  its  determination  or  measure,  as  velocity 
does  not  exactly  fix  the  intimate  condition  of  what  is 
impelling  the  body  to  move  with  greater  or  less 
intensity  in  order  to  change  the  place  or  position  of 
objects.  We  make  the  same  arguments  in  regard  to 
every  one  of  the  terms  and  properties  of  objects  as  they 
are  all  relative,  their  differences  being  only  quantitative. 
But  we  cannot  be  too  careful  in  closely  analyzing  the 
complex  concepts  of  most  of  the  terms  in  order  to  see 
which  of  the  elemental  concepts  are  comprehended  ; 
thus,  for  instance,  mass  represents  the  quantity  of  pon- 
derable matter  which  is  measured  by  the  action  of  gravity, 
and  gravity  is  a  resultant  of  the  intermotion  of  atoms  and 
progene  in  movement.  Therefore  the  concept  of  mass 
comprehends  in  itself  the  two  attributive  elements,  sub- 
stance and  activity.  In  addition  to  this,  in  a  concrete 
sense,  mass  is  not  a  fixed  relation,  but  on  the  contrary 
varies  according  to  the  conditions  of  space  and  time. 

This  is  enough  to  prove  our  proposition,  which  in 
other  words  affirms  that  when  language  expresses  a 
qualitative  difference  among  objective  things  it  is 
always  in  a  figurative  sense,  either  connoting  a  direct 
reference  to  mind  according  to  irreflexive  or  sensual 
appearances,  or  representing  simply  by  abstract  nouns 
the  conceptual  ideas  we  form  from  objects.  In  the 
former  case  language  has  given  rise  to  the  fallacy  of 


'j^s^fiBiii^'^iiiSi^^mmk 


58.   PROPAGATION  OF  MOVEMENT. 


299 


sensation  in  which  the  representations  of  the  mind  are 
taken  as  objective  differences,  and  in  the  latter  a  fallacy 
of  thought  is  produced,  taking  concepts  as  objective 
realities.  Accordingly,  we  must  conclude  that  all  objec- 
tive natural  or  material  differences  must  be  referred  m 
reality  to  quantitative  relations. 


§  58   Propagation  of  Movement  throughout 

THE  Universe. 

Irreflexive  appearances  of  sensation  have  engendered 
in  human  understanding  the  abortive  concept  of  absolute 
repose,  considering  it  as  primordial  and  in  correlation 
with  the  ontological  idea  of  movement,  considering  this 
movement  as  a  thing  merely  originated  in  the  world. 
The  signification  of  the  terms  absolute  repose  and 
absolute  movement  are  irreflexive  and  not  intelligible, 
because  we  can  only  comprehend  objective  change  as 
produced  by  propagation  of  movement,  a  finite  or 
partial  system  of  things  passing,  for  instance,  from  a 
state  of  relative  repose,  in  which  the  distances  among 
those  things  are  preserved,  to  a  state  of  relative  move- 
ment in  which  the  things  do  not  preserve  the  same 
position  among  themselves,  and  then  a  correlative 
equivalent  change,  but  of  a  completely  opposite  order 
must  be  produced  in  the  other  material  things. 

If  the  limit  of  physiological  explanations  is  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  correlation  of  material  changes,  the 
primordial  origin  or  generation  of  movement  is  inex- 
plicable as  is  that  of  matter  ;  besides  generation  of 
movement  is  inseparable  from  creation  of  matter,  as  we 
cannot  start  from  the  supposition  of  considering  it  as 
primordially  passive.      Hence  neither  has  repose  pre- 


300 


VIIL    THE   UNIVERSE. 


58.   PROPAGATION  OF  MOVEMENT. 


301 


Vi 


ceded  movement  nor  movement  repose  ;  they  are  only 
two  relative  conditions  of  objective  reality,  differentiated 
by  the  sensual  states  of  the  relative  ideal  division  that 
we  make  of  the  circulating  system  of  nature  into  smaller 
or  larger  sections,  which  generally  represent  only  a  very 
small  part  of  the  whole. 

If  movement  is  only  a  condition  of  objective  things 
it  cannot  be  transferred.  Speaking  with  propriety,  it 
can  only  be  propagated.  Nothing  can  transfer  its  own 
movement  ;  an  object  can  produce  an  equivalent  move- 
ment in  another  object,  and  then  the  antecedent  move- 
ment disappears  for  the  sensation,  but  the  resulting 
movement  is  not  truly  generated,  it  has  only  appeared 
either  under  a  different  form  or  in  a  different  place. 

In  the  propagation  of  movement  the  fundamental 
law  of  mechanism — conservation  of  energy — is  ad- 
mitted, but  although  this  is  a  true  principle,  many 
physicists  have  drawn  from  it  deductions  which  are 
totally  different  from  its  enunciation,  and  it  has  con- 
sequently been  considered  as  the  basis  for  the  false 
dogma  of  the  kinetic  hypothesis  that  movement  in  the 
phenomenal  state  is  constantly  the  same,  and  that  there- 
fore it  is  something  inherent  in  matter  with  the  perpetual 
condition  of  continuing  manifested  in  the  same  quantity. 
It  is  mathematically  demonstrated  that  movement  does 
not  persist  in  the  same  quantity  in  bodies,  because  the 
continuity  in  the  change  of  movement  through  ponder- 
able matter  is  lost  or  constantly  neutralized  by  gravity  ; 
the  movement  then  is  returned  to  its  potential  uniformity, 
and  as  this  is  a  progenic  energy,  and  progene  can  pass 
from  one  body  into  another,  the  movement  or  energy 
of  all  bodies  varies.  Therefore  there  is  a  tendency  to 
repose  in  ponderable  matter,  not  through  its  own  agency 


but  through  gravity.     We  have  seen  that,  in  order  to 
explain    the    loss    of   living   force   in    mechanism,  the 
upholders   of  the    kinetic   hypothesis    have  considered 
elasticity  as  an  inherent  property  of  matter,  having  the 
power  of  restoring  the  loss  of  living  energy  and  there- 
fore of  generating  movement.     This,  as  we  have  already 
explained,  is   not   only  an    imaginary  conception    but 
one   contradictory   both    to   the    fundamental    idea   of 
their   hypothesis  and   to  the   undoubted    condition    of 
inertia  of  matter.     We  have  also  explained  that  mani- 
fested changes  are  engendered  in  living  beings,  and  for 
these  a  variable  movement  must  be  precisely  originated 
for  the   collocation  of  the  elements  necessary  for  the 
formation   of    organic   structures.     Such   a  movement, 
which  restores  the  loss  of  living  force  in  the  world,  is 
certainly   not    a    new   creation  ;    it    is   a    propagation 
superior   to   the    power   of  mechanism,   as   a  variable 
movement  has  been  produced   by  a  uniform  potential 
energy  thus  converting  it  into  manifested  changes  or 
phenomena.     In   this    manner  we  have   explained  the 
mutual  connection   in   the  system  between  multiplica- 
tion of  living  beings  and  that  called  multiplication  of 
living  force,  which  regenerates    manifested  changes  or 
phenomenal  evolution. 

Although  all  these  questions  now  enunciated  have 
been  separately  considered  before,  we  must  bring  them 
together  here  in  order  to  explain  clearly  the  causal 
determination  of  movement 

Energy  is  the  capacity,  whether  manifested  or 
otherwise,  to  produce  a  movement,  that  is  to  say,  the 
force  to  change  the  relative  position  of  an  object  either 
in  its  totality  or  in  its  constituents — atoms  and  pro- 
gene.     The  mechanical  principle  of  conservation  affirms 


302 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE. 


58.   PROPAGATION  OF  MOVEMENT. 


303 


that  there  is  always  the  same  quantity  of  energy  in 
the  universe,  but  the  word  "  energy "  in  this  compre- 
hensive sense  does  not  alone  represent  the  quantity  of 
molar  and  molecular  movements,  whose  measure  is  half 
the  product  of  the  mass  and  the  square  of  the  velocity  ; 
in  energy  is  also  comprehended  progenic  movements, 
either  phenomenal  or  potential.  For  this  reason  we 
cannot  consider  as  a  logical  consequence  the  affirma- 
tion of  the  physicists  that  the  quantity  of  movement  of 
two  bodies  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished  by  their 
collision  ;  that  the  sum  of  the  product  of  the  mass  of 
the  bodies  and  half  the  square  of  the  velocity  are  the 
same  after  as  before  the  collision.  They  say  that  the 
translatory  movement  of  bodies  is  then  converted  into 
a  vibratory  movement  of  their  particles,  from  this 
arising  an  erroneous  corollary  of  the  principle  of  con- 
servation of  energy  by  which  they  affirm  that  movement 
is  inherent  in  bodies,  these  always  preserving  the  same 
energy  though  changing  the  form  of  the  movement. 
In  order  to  maintain  such  a  fallacy,  these  authors  claim 
to  be  assisted  by  the  results  of  experience,  affirming 
that  such  a  conversion  of  energy  into  vibratory  move- 
ment of  the  bodies  in  collision  is  palpably  seen  if  we 
experiment  with  elastic  bodies ;  and,  they  add,  in  those 
cases  in  which  there  appears  to  be  a  complete  loss  of 
energy,  as  in  the  collision  of  soft  bodies,  it  is  because 
all  molar  movement  has  been  converted  into  molecular. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  true  facts  of  experience 
are  contrary  to  such  imaginary  ideas,  as  there  is  not 
even  one  case  of  conservation  of  energy  in  bodies  after 
their  collision,  because  there  is  no  such  thing  as  perfect 
elasticity  in  bodies ;  and  even  if  we  take  into  account 
the  translatory  movement  which  in  a  collision  is  trans- 


I-    ■*';^ 


'  i-',\ 


formed  into  potential  forms  of  energy,  we  constantly 
find  the  loss  of  living  energy  and  the  propagation  of 
some  movement  from  within  the  bodies  in  collision  to 
other  bodies  ;  and  in  the  same  manner  we  may  affirm 
that  the  movements  of  ponderable  matter,  either  of 
masses  or  of  particles,  constantly  lose  some  energy 
after  any  manifested  change,  on  account  of  the  passive 
resistance  determined  by  gravitation.  This  constant 
neutralization  of  mechanical  energy  in  the  world  ac- 
counts for  the  notable  differences  between  such  abstract 
ideas  of  Mechanics  as  those  now  mentioned  and  the 
practical  facts  of  real  cosmic  mechanism. 

Propagation  of  movement  throughout  progene  alone, 
as  in  interstellar  spaces,  is  constantly  preserved  with 
the  same  energy,  because,  the  density  of  the  metafluid 
being  the  same,  there  is  no  cause  for  passive  resistance 
as  there  is  in  bodies  whose  atoms  are  of  almost  twice 
the  density  of  progene.  From  such  uniformity  in  the 
interstellar  fluid  arises  the  perfect  persistency  or  con- 
tinuity of  planetary  movements  in  harmony  with  some 
determined  law,  and  in  opposition  to  this  is  the  fault 
of  persistency  or  continuity  in  the  movement  of  the 
constituent  bodies  of  our  planet,  the  problem  of  con- 
tinuous movement  being  for  this  reason  of  impossible 
resolution  in  our  industries.  Therefore,  if  we  apply 
the  calculations  of  Astronomy  to  the  movements  of 
terrestrial  bodies,  we  must  take  into  account  the  differ- 
ences between  the  mediums,  and  consequently  the  law 

of  gravity. 

The  law  of  gravity  is  precisely  our  proof  to  demon- 
strate the  difference  of  condensation  between  ponder- 
able and  imponderable  matter  as  well  as  the  equal 
condensation   of  all   atoms,   because   the   influence   of 


304 


V211.    THE   UNIVERSE, 


58.   PROPAGATION  OF  MOVEMENT, 


305 


progene  upon  ponderable  matter  in  a  tube  from  which 
the   air  has   been   exhausted    is   equal   for   all   bodies. 
From  this  we  deduce  the  fact  that  progenic  pressure 
upon  the  earth  determines  in  all   bodies  a  force  pro- 
portional to  the  quantity  of  ponderable  matter  which 
they  contain — mass,  and  the  measure  of  such  force  is 
the  weight  of  the  body.     This  explanation  of  terrestrial 
gravity  shows  us  that  although  mass  and  weight  have 
been  considered  in  ordinary  Mechanics  as  passive  re- 
sistance, they  really  represent  activity,  as  they  are  the 
effect  of  an  invisible  movement  determined  by  the  con- 
stant pressure  of  progene  in  a  centripetal  direction,  that 
is,  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth.     This  pressure  is 
also  the  cause  of  the  necessity  of  employing  a  force 
proportional  to  the  mass  of  bodies  in  order  to  elevate 
them  to  the  same  height,  that  is,  moving  them  to  the 
same  distance  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  gravity. 
The  influence  of  gravity  which  is  palpably  observed 
in  molar  movements  is  sufficient  to  lead  us  to  infer  its 
general   application    to  the  propagation   of  movement 
throughout  the  invisible  particles  which  by  their  aggre- 
gation  form    masses.      Thus,  for   instance,  a  chemical 
combination   takes   place   because   the   equilibrium   of 
progenic  impulses  is  re-established  in  accordance  with 
the  greatest  neutralization  of  forces  which  represent  the 
measure  of  the  oscillating  energy  of  interstitial  progene 
on    the   one   hand    and    the    atomic   resistance    to   the 
pressure  of  gravitating  progene  on  the  other,  so  that 
we  must  not  forget,  in  invisible  movements  like  these, 
the   constant  effects   of  gravitation,  which   produce   a 
loss  of  living  force  in  every  corporeal  change. 

Accordingly,  we  have  made  two  limitations  in  the 
principle  of  conservation  of  energy,  as  we  have  demon- 


strated on  the  one  hand  that  there  is  always  loss  of 
living  force  in  intraplanetary  actions,  and  that  such 
conservation  may  occur  only  in  interstellar  propaga- 
tions, and  on  the  other  hand  that  the  whole  universe  is 
not  a  definite  mechanical  system  to  which  the  mathe- 
matical formulae  of  the  correlation  of  forces  can  be 
applied,  as  in  our  investigations  we  finally  reach  a  point 
which  is  not  mechanic — this  is  the  generation  of  vege- 
table and  animal  organisms  which  work  under  a  power 
of  collocation,  the  reparation  of  the  loss  of  living  force 
being  also  due  to  this. 

Many  biologists  affirm  that  vital  functions  result 
from  physical  and  chemical  phenomena,  which  are 
nothing  but  changes  of  movement  among  constant  and 
uniform  elements.  But  there  is  a  fallacy  in  this  affir- 
mation ;  it  consists  in  taking  as  resultant  that  which  is 
identical  ;  and  there  is  also  an  error  of  irreflexive  obser- 
vation, because  in  the  acquisition  of  the  ideas  which 
explain  phenomena  we  first  refer  in  the  development 
of  our  mind  to  inorganic  bodies  and  afterwards  to  the 
organized.  Vitality  does  not  result  from  physico- 
chemical  changes,  though  phenomenally  considered  it  is 
only  a  synthesis  of  all  physiological  changes  which  are 
primarily  recognized  and  studied  in  the  inorganic  world; 
from  this  fact  has  resulted  the  erroneous  concept  of 
afifirming  such  a  succession  in  the  acquisition  of  ideas 
as  the  natural  order  in  genesis.  It  is  evident  that 
every  phenomenon  or  change  manifested  to  the  senses, 
whether  the  object  referred  to  is  organic  or  inorganic, 
supposes  a  change  of  movement,  and  therefore  we  may 
say  that  vital  phenomena  are  physico-chemical  changes 
like  the  inorganic,  but  this  is  not  to  say  that  the  former 
result  from  the  latter.     If  the  word  "  result "  means  that 


3o6 


VIIL   THE   UNIVERSE. 


59.   CRITICISM  ON  EVOLUTION 


307 


the  phenomena  in  organism  are  consecutive  to  those  of 
inorganic  bodies  we  then  invert  the  natural  order,  be- 
cause organic  generation  is  the  sole  movement  in  nature 
that  cannot  be  explained  by  the  propagation  of  living 
energy  like  in  mechanism,  as,  on  the  contrary,  by  life 
some  force  becomes  manifest  instead  of  being  lost. 

Thus  we  may  maintain  that  the  world  is  in  uniform 
variable  movement,  as  this  is  necessary  for  the  constant 
and  uniform  changes  of  nature  ;  that  in  any  mechanical 
change  occurring  in  bodies  there  is  a  loss  of  living  force 
because  the  density  of  atoms  is  greater  than  that  of 
progene ;  that  from  this  difference  atoms  are  always 
losing  movement  in  their  continuous  intermotions  with 
progene  ;  and  consequently  that  progene  would  reduce 
its  variable  movements  to  a  state  of  invariable  uniformity 
if  it  was  not  returned  to  a  variable  state  by  the  act  of 
organic  generation. 

§  59.  General  Criticism  on  the  Doctrines  of 

Evolution. 

The  most  important  points  in  the  genesis  of  natural 
evolution  are:  (i)  the  transformation  of  the  different 
states  of  bodies  ;  (2)  the  generation  of  chemical  species  ; 
and  (3)  the  generation  of  organic  species.  This  last 
point,  the  origin  of  organic  species,  and  that  of  mankind 
in  particular,  is  reserved  for  Biology,  because  a  general 
or  comprehensive  criticism  of  the  evolution  of  all  bodies 
will  here  serve  our  purpose  to  combat  the  false  doctrines 
of  evolution,  especially  that  of  modern  transformism,  and 
because  the  special  criticism  on  the  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion of  living  bodies  belongs  to  the  separate  treatise  we 
shall  publish  under  the  title  of  "  Abstract  Biology." 


It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  solid  state  is  the 
primordial  one,  and  that  the  fluid  (in  its  two  forms, 
liquid  and  gaseous)  is  engendered  by  the  dispersion  of 
solid  particles,  liquids  being  thus  first  derived  and  gases 
afterwards.  This  manner  of  conceiving  the  evolution  of 
the  states  of  bodies,  according  to  which  the  solid  is  con- 
sidered as  the  prime  material,  is  the  fruit  of  irreflexive 
observation  in  which  the  sensations  presented  to  the 
mind  are  not  analyzed  with  reflection,  thus  lacking 
rational  interpretation.  The  state  of  matter  which  has 
been  primarily  perceived  by  our  minds  is  that  which 
forms  solid  masses  ;  thus  humanity  in  its  first  age,  and 
every  individual  in  its  infancy,  has  first  taken  notice  of 
solid  bodies,  afterwards  assimilating  in  perception  and 
language  the  fluid  states  (liquids  before  gases)  to  the 
solid  as  things  equally  material,  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  present  day  we  assimilate  the  metafluid  (although 
imponderable)  with  the  different  states  of  ponderable 
matter  as  being  also  material  substance.  The  mind  is 
predisposed  to  explain  the  order  of  the  natural  genesis 
of  things  by  the  order  in  the  acquisition  of  ideas,  and 
for  this  reason  the  mental  construction  of  bodies  has 
been  generally  reverse  to  that  which  reason  discovers  ; 
but  instead  of  beginning  with  solid  particles  which  is 
the  most  complete  state  of  chemical  species,  we  must 
begin  with  the  simplest  state  of  matter — progene — 
which,  condensed  by  a  power  superior  to  mechanism, 
has  formed  the  indivisible  particles  called  atoms  ;  these, 
when  dispersed  or  separated  from  one  another,  form 
gases ;  when  they  are  in  contiguity  two  by  two  they 
form  liquids  ;  and  when  all  are  in  contiguity  in  some 
point  they  form  solid  bodies. 

The  erroneous  belief  of  the  priority  of  solid  matter 


■^& 


fcT--A-ii.'  .^Tuffliiiftitnanfi 


3o8 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE, 


i4 


has  engendered,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  erroneous 
concept    of    absolute    atomism,   which   supposes   that 
matter  always  consists  of  indivisible  particles  absolutely 
rigid  and  tangible,  thus  presenting  the  solid  body  not 
only  as  the  typical  but  as  the  general  form  of  the  con- 
stitution of  matter.     But  such   an    idea,  we   repeat,  is 
opposed   to   rational   experience,  which   directs   us   to 
assume   expressly   the   contrary,   that   bodies   in    their 
gaseous  state  are  comparatively  the  simplest,  and  that 
therefore  the  natural  order  of  evolution  is  to  go  from 
the  simple  to   the   complex.     But   this   argument   has 
conduced  one  of  the  most  notable  thinkers,  Laplace,  to 
found  another  hypothesis  affirming  that  the  primitive  or 
typical  state  of  matter  is  the  gaseous  existing  in  a  very 
subtile  or  rarefied  form  called  "nebulus."     Comparing 
the  two  mentioned  hypotheses,  we  can  at  once  estimate 
the  great  scientific  superiority  of  the  last,  considering  it 
as  more  rational  than  the  first,  but  only  as  a  descriptive 
means.      In  our  judgment  the  hypothesis  of  atomism 
may  be  qualified  as  spontaneous  or  irreflexive,  or,  it  may 
be  said,  puerile;  and  the  doctrine  of  the  nebulus  is  merely 
a  graphic  or  descriptive  illusion  which  is  not  worthy  of 
elevation  to  the  rank  of  a   genesic  theory  of  the  uni- 
verse as  it  is  considered  by   almost  all  physicists  and 
naturalists.    In  addition  to  this  the  hypothesis  of  nebulus 
has  been  the  basis  for   the   doctrine   of  transformism, 
which,  as  a  theory  of  genesis,  is  altogether  inadmissible. 
The  existence  of  cosmos  can  be  explained  only  by  invo- 
lution, this  word  meaning  that  natural  existences  have 
been  created  even  in  the  most  complex  form — living 
species,  and  that  the  successive  change  of  things  consists 
in  changes  of  physico-chemical  states,  but  continuing  in 
a  circle  returning  to  their  former  condition  and  state. 


59.   CRITICISM  ON  EVOLUTION 


309 


Nevertheless,  the  most  plausible  genesic  explanation 
at  present  for  most  physicists  is  the  hypothesis  of 
nebulus,  according  to  which  all  the  forces  of  cosmic 
evolution  are  derived  in  final  analysis  purely  and  simply 
from  the  position  of  original  gaseous  particles  uniformly 
diffused  throughout  space,  and  endowed  with  attractive 
and  repulsive  forces  ;  they  supposing  that  all  changes  of 
compound  forms,  organized  as  well  as  inorganic,  must 
be  referred  to  the  chemical  affinities  of  the  original 
material  elements.  In  this  manner  the  upholders  of 
this  hypothesis  fall  into  a  chaos  from  which  they  can- 
not extricate  themselves  ;  they  pretend  that  the  system 
was  formed  only  by  its  own  tendency,  denying  in  a 
more  or  less  concealed  manner  and  with  vain  words  the 
intervention  of  the  Creator  in  the  successive  changes  of 
cosmos,  leaving  matter  to  make  the  evolution  by  itself 
alone. 

This  hypothesis  marks  the  second  step  in  intellec- 
tual development  in  the  same  manner  as  the  idea  of 
primordial  solidity  may  be  considered  as  the  first  step 
in  mental  perception  ;  but  there  is  a  third  step  beyond 
physiological  inquiries,  to  reach  which  is  not  within 
the  capacity  of  all  minds,  though  every  one  who  attains 
it  has  the  consciousness  of  the  three  stages :  first,  irre- 
flexive experience,  for  which  the  explanation  of  absolute 
atomism  is  enough ;  second,  rational  perception  of 
effects,  for  which  a  transformistic  theory  suffices  ;  and 
third,  the  conception  of  the  unity  of  the  system,  for 
which  the  admission  of  a  Supernatural  Generator  is 
necessary.  This  last  step  must  not  be  confounded  with 
mysticism,  which  sees  in  the  changes  of  nature  the 
capricious  and  variable  commands  of  a  changeable 
Deity  instead  of  the  necessary  and  invariable  connec- 


pifeaBatiaMaa8gi«ite.iyhaiii|itt^^^^^^ 


310 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE, 


tion  between  cause  and  effect,  as  is  demonstrated  by 
the  uniformity  of  nature,  which  necessary  belief  is  the 
universal  postulate  from  which  we  can  draw  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  Physiology,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  experimental  facts  of  inertia  of  matter. 

Although  the  complete  knowledge  of  the  universal 
system  can  never  be  reached  through  physiological 
studies,  still  every  student  of  nature  has  tried  to  con- 
struct it  mentally  ;  but  the  base  of  the  method  has  been 
always  false,  because  each  and  all  have  tried  to  build 
the  whole  infinite  of  a  finite  part,  selecting  for  this 
starting-point  the  concept  which  every  one  has  judged 
to  be  the  simplest.  Thus,  for  instance,  those  who  have 
examined  only  extrinsically  have  seen  the  origin  of 
all  things  in  some  material  substance  like  the  earth, 
air,  fire,  water,  hydrogen,  helium,  protile  or  imponder- 
able ether  ;  while  others,  whose  studies  are  introspective, 
have  taken  as  a  genesic  principle  some  ideal  conception 
as  love,  friendship,  discord,  intelligence  in  general,  and 
even  personal  reason  in  particular.  Hence  they  have 
all  supposed  that  which  is  the  final  result  of  the  unifi- 
cation or  generalization  of  their  thoughts  to  be  the 
principle  of  all  existing  things  ;  that  is  to  say,  reasoning 
with  material  or  ideal  entities,  once  they  have  reached 
to  the  end  of  the  process  of  abstraction  they  have  con- 
verted the  simplest  or  ultimate  induction  to  which  they 
have  arrived  into  the  generator  of  the  whole,  real  or 
universal  system. 

Setting  aside  as  unworthy  of  consideration  those 
doctrines  which  pretend  to  take  as  a  basis  what  is 
simply  an  abstract  idea  of  our  mental  or  psychical  capa- 
city, let  us  return  to  the  criticism  of  the  doctrines  which 
explain   the   origin    of    the    universe   by   objective   or 


t 


w 


59.    CRITICISM  ON  EVOLUTION. 


3" 


physiological  characters  from  the  material  elements. 
We  cannot  comprehend  a  universal  system  compounded 
of  chemical  elements  alone,  because  we  would  not  be 
able  to  perceive  the  object  if  this  existed  without  any 
change  ;  then  with  the  power  of  mechanism  alone  r  <  f 
(manifested  energy  less  than  living  force  employed)  all 
the  activity  of  the  material  world  would  be  reduced  to 
a  completely  uniform  movement  of  progene,  and  there- 
fore no  sensual  manifestation  of  living  force  could  exist. 
Our  intelligence  can  comprehend  a  system  only  by 
admitting  manifested  changes  simultaneously  produced 
by  generation  of  living  force,  r  >  f,  and  by  its  dissipa- 
tion, r  <  f.  The  universe  being  in  a  variably  uniform 
movement,  needs  some  parts  acting  as  generators  of 
living  force,  while  other  parts  act  as  dissipators,  energy 
thus  passing  from  the  actual  to  the  potential,  and  from 
the  potential  to  the  actual  state. 

The  physiologist,  then,  has  no  data  by  which  he  can 
investigate  the  complete  evolution  of  the  universe,  either 
in  space  or  time  ;  his  limits  are  reduced  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  definite  or  material  changes  after  the  creation 
of  the  world  in  a  state  which  can  differentiate  from  the 
actual  only  in  quantitative  relations  owing  to  the  redis- 
tribution of  matter  in  movement,  and  which  relations 
can  be  calculated  as  mechanical  transformations,  that  is, 
according  to  the  formula  r  =  fl^-  The  potence  which 
produces  this  change  of  organic  generation  acts,  then, 
in  a  manner  inexplicable  by  mechanism,  not  only 
because  the  resultant  energy  cannot  be  explained  by 
the  propagation  of  movement  as  in  a  machine,  but  also 
because  we  cannot  refer  the  methodic  and  constant 
relations  like  those  observed  in  organism  to  mere  coinci- 
dences, but  to  a  supreme  necessity,  and  from  this  arises 


3ii 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


complete  harmony  in  our  physiological  conception  of 
the  system.  Physiological  theory  is  justified  in  denying 
the  independence  of  mechanism,  because  an  aggregate 
of  agents  acting  mutually  is  impossible ;  we  must  con- 
ceive the  whole  as  dependent  on  a  fundamental  unity 
whose  purpose  or  essence  is  at  bottom  the  ground  of 
nature  and  its  laws. 

To  know  what  a  thing  is  is  not  to  know  how  the 
purpose  of  the  same  thing  is  effected,  and  the  lack  of 
knowledge  of  such  a  purpose  must  be  always  supplied 
by  the  study  of  the  means  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 
destroy  the  belief  in  a  causal  principle.  The  negation 
of  the  principle  of  supreme  unity  arises  only  either  in 
ignorant  or  in  vainglorious  minds  which,  because  they 
presume  to  know  how  some  changes  are  effected  in 
nature,  deny  a  determined  purpose  in  them  without 
other  reason  than  that  our  limited  intelligence  cannot 
discover  the  final  purpose  or  nature  of  the  cause  as  it 
does  the  means  or  effects.  We  must  admit  the  final 
purpose  of  universal  activity  in  accordance  with  a 
supreme  will,  and  in  this  we  recognize,  of  course,  a 
free  intelligence  not  only  as  a  creator,  but  as  a  gene- 
rator of  the  phenomenal  world  or  actual  state  of  the 

object. 

Nature  is  uniform  in  its  evolution,  because  the  finality 
of  the  Almighty  cannot  be  conceived  as  imperfect  or 
bad  ;  His  laws  finally  conduce  to  the  greatest  perfection 
and  good  in  the  material  system,  which  consequently 
must  be  formed  of  combinations  of  actual  necessity  in 
accordance  with  the  aim  of  the  system,  and  not  merely 
as  coincidences  or  accidents  of  matter.  Radical  mecha- 
nism, on  the  contrary,  conduces  to  the  belief  that  the 
laws,  order,  and  harmonic  combinations  of  nature  are 


59.   CRITICISM  ON  EVOLUTION. 


313 


fl 


.■' 


merely  coincidences  of  the  elements  without  any  rela- 
tion to  final  effects. 

We  may  sum  up  our  ideas  of  the  order  of  succes- 
sion of  the  different  changes  which  are  produced  in  the 
circle  of  involution  of  nature  as  follows  (starting  from 
the  mysterious  effects  of  nature)  :— 

1.  Protogenition—di  progenic  change  consisting  m 
the  generation  of  progenic  currents  necessary  to  move 
the  atoms  in  order  to  determine  organic  combinations 
—generation    or    multiplication,  and   growth    of  living 

matter  ; 

2.  These  combinations  constitute  nutritive  or  trophic 
assimilatiofi,  which  consists  in  molecular  or  thermo- 
chemical  changes  of  reduction  ; 

3.  Biotension—\h^.t  is,  the  progenic  latent  energy 
which  is  accumulated  in  the  organic  combinations  of 

reduction  ; 

4.  Nutritive  or  trophic  disassifnilation,  which  consists 
in  molecular  or  thermochemical  changes  of  oxidation 
by  which  the  energy  of  the  progene  which  was  in 
tension  may  be  used  in  the  functions  enumerated  under 

innervation. 

5.  Innervation— consistmg  in  a  progenic  current 
through  the  nervous  system  which,  in  its  characteristic 
change,  may  be  considered  as  the  electricity  of  orga- 
nisms, although  the  transmitting  current  is  combined 
with  thermochemical  changes  of  the  nervous  elements  ; 

6.  Contraction,  which  consists  in  a  return  molar  move- 
ment in  which  progenic  energy  is  principally  transferred 

into  muscular  work  ; 

7.  Reproduction,  which  consists  in  a  division  and  sub- 
division of  organic  germs,  in  order  to  multiply  either  the 
parts  or  the  whole  of  living  individuals  ;  and 


314 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE. 


60.    TRANSFORMISM. 


3'S 


8.  External  changes  of  organism  with  the  cosmic 
medium,  consisting  in  material  transferences  or  propa- 
gations, either  progenic  or  molecular,  or  else  molar  ;  in 
this  manner  also  all  the  changes  of  the  inorganic  world 
are  secondarily  produced. 

Therefore,  all  variation  of  movement  in  the  inorganic 
world,  and  consequently  phenomena,  are  secondarily 
derived,  that  is,  consecutive  to  the  organic  movements, 
which  in  synthesis  constitute  the  functions  of  vitality. 
Thus,  progenic  propagation,  if  continued  in  a  diffuse, 
potential  radiation,  is  radiating  heat ;  if  conducted  in  a 
confined  manner  through  bodies,  is  electricity ;  if  diffused, 
but  interrupted,  so  that  the  emissions  have  sufficient 
celerity  to  impress  the  retina,  is  light  ;  heat,  electricity, 
and  light,  then,  by  their  different  interferences  in  bodies, 
occasion  the  molecular  or  thermochemical  changes  of 
the  world,  and  afterwards,  either  directly  or  indirectly 
through  molecular  changes,  all  the  molar  movements 
are  produced,  the  movements  called  magnetic  and 
planetary  included. 

If  the  changes  in  the  inorganic  world  are  simple 
propagations  of  movement,  produced  by  the  operations 
of  the  organic  world,  and  the  former  at  the  same  time 
is  a  necessary  medium  for  the  latter,  the  living  or  mani- 
fested energy  of  the  world  could  not  last  without  both. 
Furthermore,  the  existence  of  the  two  kinds  of  organic 
material — coloured  matter,  principally  green,  as  in  vege- 
tation, and  colourless,  as  in  most  animal  webs  or  tissues, 
is  complementary,  and  without  both  life  in  the  universe 
could  not  be  possible,  one  principally  producing  the 
metamorphosis  of  reduction,  and  the  other  that  of 
oxidation.  Here  we  see  once  more  the  error  of  trans- 
formism,  because  the  universe  could  never  exist  in  evo- 


lution without  living  bodies,  nor  with  vegetable  life  alone 
— its  evolution,  or,  better  to  say,  its  involution  needs  the 
co-operation  of  the  three  kingdoms — mineral,  vegetable, 
and  animal. 

§  60.  Additional  Arguments  against 

transformism. 

Can  any  one  imagine  a  greater  contradiction  than  the 
admission  of  a  primordial  state  of  matter  perfectly  uni- 
form, affirming  the  truth  of  inertia  of  matter,  and  at 
the  same  time  considering  matter  capable  of  changing 
by  itself?  Inertia  necessarily  presupposes  the  admission 
of  causal  activity  in  matter,  and  if  this  were  the  case, 
such  activity,  according  to  the  order  and  harmony  of 
the  changes  it  promotes,  reveals  an  intelligence,  and 
then,  according  to  this,  matter  is  endowed  with  intelli- 
gence and  not  with  inertia.  In  this  manner  naturalists 
of  the  materialistic  school,  in  trying  to  deny  true  deism 
or  monotheism,  fall  into  polytheism,  presuming  with 
childish  insistance  that  they  can  interpret  universal  evo- 
lution by  the  so-called  inherent  forces  of  matter  alone. 
Consequently,  those  who  uphold  the  transformistic 
doctrine  of  evolution  so  widespread  to-day,  must  con- 
fess either  that  they  don't  want  to  say  what  they  say, 
or  that  they  do  not  know  even  how  to  place  the  problem 
of  Primordial  Cause,  which  is  the  supreme,  unknown 
quantity  of  Metaphysics. 

To  endow  matter  with  an  inherent  power  of  evolu- 
tion and  at  the  same  time  to  consider  it  as  inert  involves 
contradictory  and  irreconcilable  ideas;  action  as  inhe- 
rent to  matter  is  then  a  contradiction  to  the  principle 
of  the  conservation  of  energy,  because  this  principle  and 


3i6 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE, 


the  law  of  inertia  are  the  same  idea  enunciated  in 
different  terms,  both  affirming  that  matter  cannot  change 
by  itself,  that  is,  that  it  could  not  produce  any  mutation 
by  itself  if  all  was  primordially  in  a  state  of  relative 
repose,  or,  better  said,  a  completely  uniform  movement, 
and  consequently  that  the  movement  or  energy  of  the 
physical  changes  of  the  system  can  never  result  from 
the  mutual  action^  of  the  objective  parts  and  particles 
among  themselves. 

The  greater  number  of  those  who  have  occupied 
themselves  in  explaining  cosmic  evolution  think  that 
they  can  elaborate  a  theory  of  the  origin,  present  state, 
and  end  of  the  universe,  considering  this  as  a  something 
finite  in  time  and  space,  and  that  they  can  scientifically 
determine  its  past  and  its  future.  Thus,  transformism 
starts  from  the  principle  of  an  absolute  nothing,  and 
this  non-existence  is  referred  back  some  millions  of 
years ;  the  transformists  suppose,  in  the  beginning,  a 
material  state  of  absolute  uniformity  without  any  change, 
from  which  the  phenomenal  differences  which  are  the 
essential  conditions  of  physiological  notions  gradually 
arose.  But  if  evolution  is  of  itself  an  impossibility  it 
would  be  equally  impossible  of  occurrence  "through 
many  millions  of  years,"  and  "through  infinitesimal 
changes,"  under  which  expressions  transformism  lies 
hidden.  This  affirmation  of  a  limited  duration  of  the 
universe  pretends  to  be  founded  upon  physical  con- 
siderations deduced  from  recent  studies  on  planetary 
constitution,  but  this  is  nothing  more  than  to  confound 
the  genesic  principle  with  the  descriptive  method  in 
which  we  begin  by  supposing  that  at  first  our  mind  is 
absolutely  empty  of  knowledge  and  that  knowledge  is 
formed  by  a  successive  aggregation  of  material,  until  we 


60.    TRANSFORMISM, 


317 


give  to  the  mental  construction  the  greatest  complexity 
to  which  we  can  arrive  in  our  inquiries,  giving  to  such  a 
complexity  the  representation  of  the  actual  state  of  the 
universe,  although  this  at  present  is  in  reality  the  state 
of  the  past  and  of  the  future.     We  must  not  confound 
the  relative  mutation  of   a   limited    system   of  things 
which  is  within  our  knowledge  with  the  absolute  muta- 
tions of  the  universal  system  which  are  unknowable ; 
to  affirm  that   which  is  inconceivable  is  too  absurd  a 
pretension  to  be  given  a  place  in  science ;  nevertheless, 
the  geological  studies  which  transformism  presents  as 
proofs  of   its  doctrine  are  considerations  of  this  kind. 
This  cosmogonic  hypothesis,  presuming  that  absolute 
determinations   can   be   scientifically  explained,   either 
makes  a  grotesque  description  of  the  acts  of  the  Creator 
in  parallel  with  those  of  the  human  creature,  supposing 
that  Creator  as  the  image    and  likeness  of  man  who 
makes  a  work  of  art,  and  as  first  existing  and  thinking 
alone  how  to  make  a  work  of  art,  forming  the  whole 
from  nothing,  or,  what  is  still  worse,  that  without  any 
Creator  all  which  exists  sprang  from  nothing,  or,  what 
is  almost  the  same,  from  an  eternal  uniform  state  of 
matter  in  invariable  movement. 

The  origin  and  end  of  the  universe  is  to  us  an  impene- 
trable mystery,  and  therefore  we  must  never  make  it  the 
subject  of  a  scientific  thesis  on  our  physiological  ground  ; 
we  must  circumscribe  ourselves  to  the  study  of  the  rela- 
tive changes  of  cosmos  in  the  course  of  time,  and  not 
inquire  about  its  principle  and  end.  Nevertheless,  the 
doctrine  which  affirms  the  limited  duration  of  cosmos 
has  also  received  the  favourable  opinion  of  many  physi- 
cists who  maintain  that  the  limit  of  the  future  is  deter- 
minable, because,  they  say,  the  mechanical  energy  of  the 


•'-"# 


3i8 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


60.    TRANSFORMISM. 


319 


universe  is  gradually  lessening,  since  that  which  dis- 
appears does  not  seem  to  be  restored  in  equal  quantities  ; 
they  affirm  that  a  time  will  come  in  which  the  earth 
and  the  other  planets  will  not  be  habitable,  and  that 
the  energy  will  be  finally  lost  as  a  proof  of  change, 
movement  throughout  the  universe  becoming  again  abso- 
lutely uniform.  This  conclusion,  which  pretends  to  be 
experimental,  lacks  foundation,  because  only  a  partial 
reference  can  be  made  to  experience,  as  this  cannot 
grasp  the  whole  universe  ;  thus,  such  a  reflection  is  made, 
of  course,  with  limitation  to  our  planet,  which,  being  a 
part  in  mutual  dependence  with  the  other  celestial 
bodies,  must  always  change  through  interplanetary 
propagation,  and  therefore  decrease  of  energy  in  this 
planet  presupposes  increase  of  energy  in  the  indefinite 
cosmos.  But  they  think  that  the  changes  of  our  planet 
could  be  extended  to  all  cosmos,  and  in  order  to  make 
this  application  easier  they  have  imagined  a  universe 
definite  not  only  in  time  but  occupying  a  definite  space. 
Thus,  instead  of  simplifying  matters,  transformism  has 
increased  the  difficulties  of  the  conception  of  cosmos 
even  without  saving  the  contradiction  of  the  terms  i7ifi' 
nite  and  dissipatio7i  of  energy. 

We  must  not  forget  that  we  refer  ourselves  to  a 
physiological  thesis,  and  that  therefore  all  discussion 
must  give  us  some  positive  knowledge  ;  and  if  we  do  not 
know  how  to  determine  the  limits  of  the  universe  either 
in  its  substance,  activity,  space,  or  time,  it  is  for  us  as 
illimited,  as  infinite,  as  is  the  determination  of  any  rela- 
tivity of  existing  things.  And  now  we  may  add  that 
in  an  illimited  thing,  as  is  the  universe,  it  is  as  incompre- 
hensible to  us  how  energy  can  be  dissipated  as  how  it 
can  be  preserved  the  same  ;  but  we  have  admitted  con- 


I 


servation  of  energy  as  the  fundamental  principle  of 
mechanism,  because  the  fact  of  inertia  of  matter  is 
undoubtedly  true. 

Once  we  have  demonstrated  the  fallacy  of  the 
hypothesis  of  transformism  in  general,  we  might  excuse 
ourselves  from  treating  in  a  general  theory  of  cosmos  of 
any  one  of  the  transformistic  doctrines  in  particular,  but 
we  will  make  a  slight  notice  of  them  in  order  to  present 
in  a  brief  classification  the  principal  points  of  diflference 
among  them.  All  are  under  the  same  principle,  but 
contain  two  series  of  explanations,  so  that  we  can 
classify  them  into  two  groups  according  as  they  refer  to 
inorganic  evolution  or  to  organic,  and  if  we  do  not  take 
into  account  the  slight  variations  on  particular  subjects 
we  may  reduce  to  two  hypotheses  all  those  belonging  to 
each  group.  Those  referring  to  inorganic  evolution  are 
those  of  nebulus  and  meteoric  aggregation,  and  those 
referring  to  organic  evolution  are  the  monotypic  and 
the  polytypic.  Taken  in  all,  radical  transformism  is  a 
full  application  of  the  supposed  idea  of  the  old 
alchemists  of  the  existence  of  the  philosopher's  stone 
with  which  they  hoped  to  engender  in  the  laboratory 
all  the  minerals,  and  even  to  transmute  base  into 
precious  metals,  with  the  difference  that  transformism 
goes  even  further,  extending  the  power  of  its  basical 
stone  to  that  of  engendering  living  bodies  ! 

Organic  like  inorganic  transformism  is  simply  based 
on  the  process  of  formation  of  concepts  from  mental 
abstractions  ;  but  we  reserve  for  Biology  the  special 
criticism  on  the  origin  of  organic  species  in  general 
and  of  mankind  in  particular,  and  for  this  reason  in 
this  question  there  only  remains  for  us  to  fix  the  con- 
cept of  the  word  species,  on  account  of  the  different 


320 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE. 


60.    TRANSFORMISM. 


321 


interpretations   it    has    received    and   the    importance 
of  the  word  in  cosmic  evolution. 

We  have  already  grouped  the  species  under  two 
headings— living  species  and  chemical  species;  the 
former  are  frequently  called  also  organic,  and  the  latter 
inorganic,  but  we  must  keep  in  mind  that  organic  and 
living  are  not  synonymous,  because  organic  compre- 
hends not  only  living  but  dead  structures  which  still 
retain  the  morphologic  characteristics  which  they  pre- 
sented when  they  were  alive.  Chemical  species  are 
perfectly  defined  in  their  quantitative  relations,  which 
are  in  definite  proportions  when  they  are  combined,  and 
they  form  a  series  in  a  harmonic  scale  when  they  are  in 
a  simple  or  elemental  state ;  these  elemental  chemical 
species  are  primitive  forms  thus  created  ;  there  is  no 
species  newly  coined,  if  we  may  use  the  expression  ; 
the  species  of  to-day  exactly  resemble  those  of  the  past. 
Living  species,  like  the  chemical  elements,  are  also 
created  forms,  but  they  do  not  follow  exactly  their 
former  types  ;  they  may  change  in  the  conditions  of 
their  ulterior  development,  thus  originating  the  different 
varieties  which  in  turn  may  be  mixed  by  the  act  of 
fecundation,  so  giving  rise  to  more  extended  varieties. 
Thus  there  is  something  immutable  in  the  act  of 
fecundation  which  is  the  only  circumstance  that  permits 
us  to  characterize  the  different  species,  and,  indeed, 
if  we  exclude  the  character  of  their  origin,  we  cannot 
define  the  living  species,  because  we  do  not  know 
the  characteristic  of  their  quantitative  relations  as  we 
do  in  the  chemical  species.  We  must  admit,  then,  the 
existence  of  species  in  the  two  kinds  of  bodies  in 
nature,  that  is,  in  non-convertible  inorganic  forma- 
tions and  in  non-convertible  organisms,  with  the  only 


difference  that  as  the  former  are  simple  and  homo- 
geneous in  themselves  they  can  be  very  well  dif- 
ferentiated numerically,  while  the  living  species  are 
so  complex  and  heterogeneous  in  themselves  that  they 
cannot  by  any  means  be  numerically  defined  or 
determined. 

The  natural  species  exist  from  the  Creation,  but 
man  classifies  them  according  to  their  manifested 
analogies,  although  the  analogies  among  the  different 
species  are  referred  to  conditions  that  are  not  inherent 
properties  but  mere  abstractions  of  concepts  which  only 
express  facts  of  quantitative  relation  without  stating  the 
cause.  The  "  why  ?  "  is  always  the  universal  potence 
which  is  only  one  and  perfect  in  goodness  and  beauty  ; 
the  multiplicity  of  the  effects  depending  on  the  mutual 
relations  which  are  determined  by  the  conflict  of  every 
part  of  the  universe  with  its  extreme  conditions. 

Some  writers  object  to  the  admission  of  the  specific 
power  of  the  Engendering  Cause  because  from  the  same 
parents  different  creatures  can  be  born,  even  if  they 
develop  under  the  same  external  conditions ;  but  the 
examples  they  give  are  of  course  deceitful  appearances, 
because  it  never  happens  in  the  world  that  in  all  the 
relations  of  two  changes  there  are  any  two  conditions 
identical  ;  the  Engendering  Cause  is  the  sole  invariable 
condition,  otherwise  we  would  be  obliged  to  affirm  the 
contradiction  that  one  thing  could  be  one  and  many  at 
the  same  time.  They  also  say  that  inheritance  of  traits 
from  distant  ancestors  may  occur  without  any  mani- 
festation in  their  intermediaries,  but  such  an  observation 
is  made  even  with  the  faulty  intelligence  of  wrongly 
interpreting  what  the  word  "  inheritance  "  means  in  the 
succession  of  organic   individualities,  and  they  exclude 

V 


322 


VIIL   THE   UNIVERSE, 


from  the  concourse  the  extrinsic  influence  of  the 
medium.  The  act  of  reproduction  is  a  continuation  of 
the  ancestor  in  connection  with  the  Engendering  Cause  ; 
there  cannot  be  multiplication  of  beings  without  particles 
of  organized  bodies  serving  as  germs,  which,  separating 
themselves  and  growing,  form  the  new,  individuals ; 
consequently  the  constant  and  successive  generation  of 
living  individuals  is  not  a  complete  creation  but  a 
succession  with  multiplication  of  the  effects  arising  from 
the  organizing  potence.  For  this  reason  the  word 
"  genesis  "  and  its  derivatives  are  employed  in  Physiology 
in  a  figurative  sense  and  not  exactly  in  their  etymo- 
logical meaning  of ''  creation."  To  affirm  the  possibility 
of  new  creations  would  be  the  same  as  to  defend 
spontaneity,  and  this  is  the  error  into  which  trans- 
formism  has  fallen. 

With  this  we  have  said  enough  on  this  question,  in 
which  all  explanations  only  serve  to  set  back  and  com- 
plicate the  mystery  in  order  to  put  it  at  an  immeasur- 
able distance  from  our  understanding,  and  when  it  is 
shrouded  in  such  a  heavy  fog  that  no  eye  can  distinguish 
anything,  it  is  then  that  transformism  tries  to  show  the 

origin. 

Accordingly,  in  our  opinion,  contrary  to  the  reigning 
assumption  of  transformism,  the  evolution  of  the  universe 
cannot  be  scientifically  discovered  either  in  its  principle 
or  in  its  end  ;  but  the  proof  of  this  proposition  requires 
further  argument,  so  that  we  will  devote  to  it  another 
separate  article. 


6i.   COSMOGONY. 


323 


§  61.  The  Doctrine  of  Cosmogony  is  not 

Physiologic. 

The  science  of  the  formation  of  the  universe,  or 
Cosmogony,  belongs  not  to  the  science  of  nature — 
Physiology,  but  to  the  science  of  the  supernatural — 
Metaphysics.  We  are  now  to  consider  this  proposition, 
for  which  it  is  necessary  to  review  some  data  previously 
given. 

We  must  all  be  convinced  that  the  constituents  of 
the  universe  form  a  true  system,  and  that  the  position 
and  action  of  the  different  parts  of  the  world  are  under 
the  conditionality  of  its  relations  with  the  whole,  this 
being  not  a  sum  of  independent  elements,  not  a  simple 
aggregate  of  things  entirely  isolated  from  one  another, 
but  a  community  in  which  all  objects  are  in  mutual 
dependence.  There  are  no  absolute  individualities  in 
physical  cosmos  like  a  true  primordial  cause,  neverthe- 
less all  physicists  are  constantly  falling  into  the  fallacy 
of  supplying  matter  with  abstract  or  causing  forces, 
thereby  implying  mutual  independence  among  objective 
things. 

Vitality,  phenomenally  considered,  also  represents  a 
community  whose  functions  consist  in  a  partial  synthesis 
of  the  general  changes  which  are  singly  manifested  in 
inorganic  bodies,  although  in  these  they  are  consecutive 
to  the  progagation  of  movement  from  organized  bodies. 
Vitality  in  all  living  matter  must  have  its  functions 
and  follow  all  the  phases  of  its  natural  development 
in  accordance  with  a  plan,  but  although  this  plan  is  a 
unity  there  are  variations  in  the  consequences  depending 
on  the  interaction  of  every  living  body  with  its  cosmic 
medium. 


324 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE, 


In  our  physiological  inquiries  we  have  finally 
reached  a  point  whose  discussion,  we  repeat,  belongs 
to  metaphysical  science  :  What  is  the  cause  of  organic 
generation  ?  But  we  have  answered  this  question  with- 
out prejudging  anything  of  the  nature  of  the  Creator 
and  his  connection  with  the  created  ;  without  trans- 
gressing the  bounds  of  Physiology  we  have  concluded  | 
that  matter  alone  is  not  sufficient  in  the  universe,  and 
that  its  activity  must  be  subordinate  to  an  ultra-material, 
supernatural,  or  immaterial  principle.  We  do  not  need 
to  discuss  whether  the  immediate  cause  of  organic 
generation  is  a  special  vital  agent,  or  whether  it  is  the 
rational  soul  itself  but  with  unconscious  activity,  or  else 
whether  the  Creator  is  directly  the  great  Architect  or 
proximate  agent  of  the  generation  of  all  living  beings  ; 
what  we  do  need  to  know  is  that  an  organized  body 
cannot  be  engendered  by  the  action  of  material  elements 
alone,  and  that  from  the  admission  of  the  contrary  the 
most  mysterious  conception  of  matter  results  when 
physicists  try  to  explain  its  evolution.  Nevertheless  we 
have  given  our  opinion  on  this  point,  because  if  the 
admission  of  intermediary  principles  like  vital  agents 
and  unconscious  activities  of  the  soul  only  complicate 
and  remove  to  a  greater  distance  from  our  under- 
standing, the  explanation  of  the  causal  process,  we  set 
aside  the  existence  of  agents  emanating  from  the 
Supreme  in  order  to  direct  organic  generation  ;  it  is 
clearer  and  more  in  accordance  with  our  perception  to 
admit  the  direct  intervention  of  the  Creator  in  such  a 
process,  as  all  that  we  can  perceive  is  either  subject 
(mind)  or  object  (matter),  and  so  we  may  imagine  the 
abstraction  of  the  generating  cause  as  the  supreme 
subject  or  supreme  mind.     Hence  we  admit  that  in  the 


■•j^^fit!'    ---•■■  -       •  '■-    — 


6i.    COSMOGONY. 


325 


organisms  matter  is  combined,  forming  highly  complex 
structures  in  accordance  with  the  direct  realization  of 
the  divine  aim,  and  for  this  purpose  it  must  constantly 
dispose  of  the  forces  that  such  an  end  demands,  but 
such  protogenesic  force,  or,  better  to  say,  the  origin  of 
changes  of  movement,  is  not  the  effect  of  powers  inherent 
in  the  elements  of  material  nature ;  on  the  contrary, 
all  inorganic  activities  are  in  their  promotion  the  result 
of  the  functions  of  organism.  Accordingly,  the  Primor- 
dial Cause  is  not  only  the  creator  of  the  physical 
elements  but  also  the  generator  of  the  series  of  activities 
that  are  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  organic 
world,  from  which,  we  repeat,  all  the  energies  we 
recognize  in  inorganic  matter  are  derived. 

How,  then,  can  we  expect  that  a  ray  of  scientific 
light  could  ever  spring  from  the  highest  intellectual 
effort  to  illumine  the  eternal  mystery  of  the  Creation  ? 
It  is  impossible,  and  therefore  Cosmogony  must  not  be 
considered  as  a  problem  of  physiological  science  ;  it  is 
solely  under  the  dominion  of  belief.  Thus,  when  human 
intellect  is  ambitious  to  explain  or  comprehend  scientifi- 
cally the  mysteries  of  creation  and  organic  generation,  it 
can  do  no  less  than  wander  away  from  the  true  path 
and  lose  itself  either  in  grotesque  hallucinations  or  in 
chaos,  imagining  a  cosmos  in  incomprehensible  disorder 
whose  principle  is  eternal  confusion,  an  image  only  com- 
patible with  the  mental  rachitis  of  blind  incredulity. 
Experience,  guided  by  rational  reflection,  as  well  as  the 
self-consciousness  of  most  minds,  conduces  to  the  belief 
in  the  existence  of  a  primordial  motor  which  is  the 
Creator  and  Generator  of  the  universe,  in  opposition  to 
atheism,  materialism,  and  modern  transformism.  These 
doctrines  set  out  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  universe 


326 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


6i.    COSMOGONY. 


327 


11 


IS. 


as  an  absolute  whole  deduced  from  the  laws  of  dynam- 
ism, which  is  a  complete  absurdity,  because  there  is  no 
foundation  for  any  hypothesis  which  supposes  that  we 
can  understand  what  lies  beyond  the  mutual  dependence 
of  object  and  mind.  The  only  thing  that  our  intelli- 
gence can  comprehend  is  the  knowledge  of  such  a 
dependence  which  is  reduced  to  quantitative  relations, 
and  therefore  in  such  a  mutual  dependence  among 
cosmic  objects  there  is  no  antecedent  which  can  be  the 
primordial  cause.  Nevertheless,  we  have  seen  that  these 
false  doctrines  uphold  such  inconceivable  absurdities  as 
the  idea  of  the  construction  of  all  nature  from  pure  ether, 
which  as  a  material  thing  must  completely  lack  attri- 
butes ;  and  many  even  affirm  that  the  physical  world 
has  sprung  from  the  concept  they  presume  to  have  of 
zero,  which  equals  nothing  ;  and  still  others  derive  it 
from  the  existence  of  an  impersonal  or  non-subjective 
will.  The  fallacy  of  all  these  can  be  seen  at  a  glance 
because  they  are  even  fallacies  of  language. 

Besides  this,  a  cursory  observation  shows  us  the 
impossibility  of  scientifically  fixing  epochs  in  the  sup- 
posed evolution  of  cosmos  because  the  time  necessary 
for  the  production  of  a  change  varies  in  the  widest 
degree  with  the  conditions  of  activity.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, a  change  which  at  the  temperature  of  zero  needs 
some  centuries  to  be  effected  will  need  at  100°  only  a  few 
years,  at  1000°  only  days,  at  a  still  higher  temperature 
only  hours,  and  higher  still  seconds.  As  a  proof  of  this 
we  may  observe  that  in  the  operations  in  a  chemical 
laboratory  a  transformation  which  at  zero  needs  many 
years  to  be  effected  can  be  produced  in  a  short  time 
by  having  recourse  to  very  high  temperatures.  In 
addition  to  this  motive  of  error,  that  is,  calculating  the 


m 


epochs  of  cosmic  evolution,  there  is  another  cause  of 
error  which  is  not  dependent  on  the  conditions  of  our 
planet  but  on  interplanetary  connections,  so  that  we  call 
attention  to  the  extraordinary  terrestrial  changes  which 
can  be  effected  by  some  variations  in  planetary  inter- 
actions.   Who,  then,  is  capable  of  expounding  the  results 
and  necessary  time  for  one  of  those  phases  of  engender- 
ing evolution  ?     In  our  ulterior  existence  let  us  suppose, 
for  instance,  an  increase  of  interstellar  pressure,  which 
pre-supposes  as  its  direct  cause  an  extraordinary  propa- 
gation of  living  force  from  some  of  the  planets  for  which 
a  disorganization  beyond  that  of  ordinary  conditions 
must  take  place,  like  a  great  fire  destroying  more  organic 
material  than    can    be  at   once  restored,  the   result  of 
such  an  increase  of  interplanetary  pressure  would  be 
then   an   increase    in    the   condensation  of  bodies  pro- 
<lucing  a  greater  emission  in  their  interstitial  progene  ; 
this  escape  of  progene  would  produce  great  molar  move- 
ments like  those  of  earthquakes  and  magnetism,  great 
molecular  or  thermochemical  changes  also,  and  greater 
progenic  impulses  either  confined  (electricity)  or  diffused 
(photothermic  radiation)  ;  and  from  this  last  the  diver- 
gence of  the  orbital  curve  followed  by  the  planets  would 
increase.     But  if  the  planets  become  then  more  widely 
separated  or  deviate  more  from  their  great  centre  the 
increase  of  manifested   activity  now  mentioned  would 
very  soon  be  followed  by  a  compensating  decrease  of 
the  energy  of  solar  reflection,  so  re-establishing  promptly 
the  equilibrium  of  actual  phenomena.     By  such  an  inter- 
planetary change  how  many  transformations  could  then 
be  developed  in  a  moment  which  under  normal  circum- 
stances could  not  be  produced  in  ages ! 

Furthermore,  two  very   different  things  have  been 


yaymiftiiOTi  i*rif j«Aa>^ 


328 


V7/I.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


61.    COSMOGONY. 


329 


confounded  by  writers  on  Cosmogony,  this  is  that  the 
phases  which  they  suppose  a  limited  part  of  the  uni- 
verse have  followed,  have  been  referred  by  them  to  the 
universe  in  totality,  committing  in  the  generalization 
an  error  of  principle.  Thus  then  by  every  path  we 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  problem  of  the  primor- 
dial formation  of  objects  in  nature  cannot  be  studied 
and  resolved  by  physiological  method  ;  it  is  a  meta- 
physical thesis.  Every  assertion  made  on  physical 
grounds  about  material  change  or  evolution  must  be 
partial  and  not  total,  that  is  to  say,  geological  know- 
ledge cannot  in  any  manner  explain  the  Creation  but 
only  the  mere  metamorphoses  of  things  already  con- 
stituted. Thus,  Geology,  with  its  ridiculous  pretence  of 
teaching  the  Creation  by  discovering  the  changes  or 
differences  existing  in  a  limited  part  of  the  universe  has, 
we  repeat,  for  a  principle  and  conclusion  either  chaos  or 
fatalistic  spontaneity.  This  is  not  only  a  conjectural 
idea  but  a  false  and  vicious  creation  of  language ;  it  can- 
not be  even  a  mental  presentation,  as  it  is  inconceivable  ; 
all  knowledge  on  generation  in  the  physiological  order 
is  only  apparent,  because  what  rational  experience  really 
observes  is  that  something  never  comes  from  nothing, 
that  there  is  nothing  spontaneous  or  newly  created,  and 
no  existing  thing  is  ever  annihilated.  The  Book  of 
Genesis,  which  treats  of  explaining  the  work  of  Creation, 
presupposes  the  belief  of  operations  engendered  by  a 
primordial  motor  capable  of  executing  its  purpose  in 
accordance  with  the  formula  r  >  f  (manifested  resultant 
greater  than  living  force  employed).  This  is  evidently 
of  the  metaphysical  order,  but  in  our  desire  to  dis- 
tinguish how  physiological  theory  may  come  into  accord- 
ance with  Christian  Cosmogony  we  can  make  a  brief 


^ 


excursion  into  metaphysical  ground  with  the  principal 
aim  of  knowing  more  clearly  the  limits  of  physiological 
knowledge. 

The  affirmations  of  Cosmogony  are  inconceivable  as 
a  scientific  theory  ;  the  creation  of  the  world  from 
nothing,  and  the  transformation  of  the  universe  from 
an  absolute  uniform  state  to  its  present  phenomenal 
condition  or  permanent  variation  are  mysteries  for  our 
intelligence  for  ever  physiologically  irresoluble.  We 
may  enunciate  these  mysteries  more  clearly  as  different 
successive  acts  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  primordial  origin  or  creation  of  matter  in  a 
uniform  and  perfectly  metafluid  state,  that  is,  as  if  all 
objects  were  reduced  to  the  simplest  or  progene. 

2.  The  condensation  of  progene  into  inorganic 
elements  which  are  irreducible  or  non-convertible  and 
which  presuppose  the  formation  of  indivisible  particles 
— atoms — of  equal  density  but  with  geometrical  differ- 
ences of  volume  and  figure. 

3.  The  formation  of  living  bodies  and  organic  gene- 
ration to  produce  growth  and  reproduction. 

4.  The  generation  of  mental  power  and  its  successive 
operations  constituting  the  capacities  of  the  mind,  which 
does  not  determine  all  the  operations  of  its  activity  by 
dynamic  changes,  because  in  the  mental  process  there 
is  no  definite  space,  and  it  is  only  revealed  to  us  intrin- 
sically, that  is,  by  consciousness. 

The  first  act  of  these  four  now  enumerated  represents 
our  first  mental  abstraction  of  a  "  substance  "  without 
taking  the  other  conceptual  elements  (activity,  space, 
and  time)  into  consideration  ;  in  the  second  we  make 
the  abstraction  of  material  activity,  but  as  existing  in 
an  absolutely  uniform  movement ;  in  the  third  we  take 


330 


VIII.    THE    UNIVERSE. 


62.    CAUSAL  DETERMINATION. 


33^ 


into  account  the  abstract  cause  of  manifested  changes 
in  the  world — organic  generation  ;  and  in  the  fourth  we 
abstract  the  qualitative  ideas  as  engendered  by  the 
exciting  impressions  from  the  object,  which  propagate 
nothing  to  the  mind  but  progenic  movement,  which  can 
differ  only  in  quantitative  relations. 

The  philosophical  school  called  positivism  has  fallen 
into  the  other  extreme  opposite  to  evolutionism  and 
admits  only  as  true  abstract  knowledge  that  which  is 
physiological,  considering  as  negative  all  philosophical 
inquiries  which  go  beyond  the  immediate  relations  of 
phenomena,  and  therefore  it  denies  genesis  ;  but  posi- 
tive knowledge  so-called  cannot  satisfy  the  moral  neces- 
sities of  humanity  nor  the  intellectual  ambition  of  those 
who  feel  themselves  impelled  to  investigations  regarding 
the  cause  of  the  phenomenal  world,  and  we  must  here 
remark  that  perhaps  all  who  call  themselves  positivists 
do  not  content  themselves  within  the  intellectual  bounds 
marked  by  their  school  ;  they  are  positivists  in  name 
but  not  in  fact. 

From  all  this  it  results  that  physiological  sciences 
have  no  experimental  data  referring  to  the  acts  of 
creation  and  organic  generation,  and  consequently  they 
must  be  limited  to  the  study  of  the  history  of  cosmos 
in  its  present  involution,  considering  only  the  changes 
of  actuality  and  material  potentiality.  The  physiologist 
cannot  comprehend  even  the  "  Why  ?  "  of  the  funda- 
mental principle — conservation  of  energy,  and  this  would 
be  sufficient  reason  to  deny  his  authority  in  a  criticism 
of  the  genesis  ;  he  has  no  data  to  explain  any  of  the 
transformations  in  which  the  resultant  living  force  is 
greater  than  energy  expended ;  neither  can  he  fix 
epochs,  short  or  long,  to  the  ages  in  which  he  presumes 


(! 


from  his  geological  studies  that  the  transformations  of 
the  universe  have  occupied.  Therefore,  it  is  but  a 
useless  waste  of  time  to  seek  a  physiological  solution  of 
the  questions  of  genesis,  and  explanations  for  the  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  between  the  false  conclusions  of 
most  contemporaneous  scientists  on  the  cosmogonic 
problem  and  religious  traditions.  Physiology  must  be 
positive  in  a  relative  sense,  and  must  prosecute  investiga- 
tions only  of  what  can  be  demonstrated  by  facts  of 
observation ;  only  these  and  their  relations  compose 
the  knowledge  of  the  object ;  it  must  not  follow  the 
investigation  of  the  first  cause  nor  of  the  end  of  the 
changes,  as  such  problems  cannot  be  resolved  by 
experience  but  by  pure  reason,  because  they  transcend 
physical  grounds  and  must  be  treated  in  metaphysical 
sciences,  which  try  to  remove  the  veil  that  conceals  the 
connection  between  the  finite  and  the  infinite. 

§  62.  Causal  Determination  of  the  Universe. 

The  object  of  this  article  is  to  inculcate  in  the  mind 
of  the  physiologist  the  notion  of  the  cause  of  the  system, 
in  order  to  correct  the  common  tendency  which  those 
have  who  do  not  possess  fundamental  speculations,  either 
to  fall  into  mechanical  positivism  or  into  sensational 
doctrines.  These  refuse  to  acknowledge  the  investigations 
of  the  causes,  and  do  not  admit  anything  else  within 
the  possibility  of  the  understanding  than  the  study  of 
phenomena ;  they  pretend  that  sensation  is  the  sole 
source  of  knowledge,  and  because  the  senses  cannot 
discover  the  true  cause  they  deny  its  existence.  In 
trying  to  avoid  this  fallacy  we  must  not  go  to  the  other 
extreme,  that  of  supposing  that  the  acknowledgment  of 


M..aafe.»:^^.i^ 


"ii«8«^«'*^^a#ftiiiii*VtiJiftiMlririiii lifin 'ittn  rm  iiiifriiflT'riii'Biii 


332 


VIIL    THE   UNIVERSE. 


62.    CAUSAL  DETERMINATION. 


333 


the  assistance  of  a  cause  denotes  its  essence  or  qualita- 
tive nature ;  let  us  see,  then,  what  is  the  just  concept  of 
the  causal  determination  of  the  universe. 

We  have  already  demonstrated  the  absurdity  of  those 
vain  attempts  to  construct  the  system  with  atoms  alone, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  atomists,  and  also  of  the  most 
unreasonable  idea  of  admitting  the  substantial  reality  of 
space.     Such  absurdities  in  the  concept  of  the  universe 
must  give  place  to  the  admission  of  a  generator  of  its 
activities  as  the  sole  causal   determination,  instead   of 
that   multitude   of    nominal    agents   like   the    so-called 
molecular  forces  attributed  to  matter,  and  which  cannot 
be  agents  at  all,  being  only  the  measure  of  some  effected 
movement.     It   is  certain  that  all  activities  are  deter- 
mined in  their  nature  and  mutual  relations  by  the  plan 
and   nature   of  the   whole   system  ;    but  we  must  not 
confound  the  forms  of  activity  which  produce  natural 
manifestations    or    phenomena   with    their    primordial 
cause,  and  in  the  successive  order  of  the  relations  between 
cause   and   effect   we   must   distinguish   that   which   is 
immediate   or   direct   from    that   which    is    mediate   or 
indirect.     Thus   the   definite   acts   or   phenomena    like 
those  manifested  in  inorganic  bodies  must  not  be  con- 
sidered as  directly  or  immediately  proceeding  from  the 
Supreme  Being,  but  as  secondarily  derived  from  vitality, 
which  represents  the  synthesis  of  all  the  changes  pro- 
duced in  organism,  and  whose  manifested  functions  are 
like  any  other  phenomena  derived  from  organic  genera- 
tion.    Hence,  the  proximate  cause  of  the  relative  unity 
of  cosmic  mechanism  is  not  the  atom,  but  the  primordial 
potence  of  living  activity — organic  generation — which  at 
present  is  the  sole,  immediate  or  direct  effect  of  the 
infinite  on  material  ground;   such  a  primary  effect  is 


/' 


ii 


C^j" 


the  only  change  which  has  directly  received  its  con- 
ditions of  nature  and  mutual  relations  from  the  nature 
and  plan  of  the  whole,  and  such  relations  will  be  con- 
stant if  the  plan  of  the  cause  requires  constancy,  and  if 
the  plan  demands  progress  the  organizing  activity  of 
living  matter  can  pass  from  low  to  higher  forms. 

Objects  having  a  fortuitous  existence  under  the  plan 
of    the   world,    it   must    be    possible   to    change    their 
characters  according  as  that  plan  is  developed  ;  in  what, 
then,  consists  the  dependence  of  objects  among  them- 
selves in  accordance  with  their  necessary  interaction  in 
the  system  1     We   must  always  distinguish,  we  repeat, 
that  which  is  effected  from  that  which  causes  the  effect. 
We  have  seen  that   living  germs  and   the  anatomical 
elements  which  they  develop,  when  chemically  analyzed, 
are  constituted  of  a  few  inorganic  elements  equal  in  all 
beings,  though  the  proportions  in  which  these  are  com- 
bined and  the  relative  aggregations  of  the  compound  so 
formed  are  different  for  every  living  species.     But  such 
a  collocation  of  particles  then  for  the  construction   of 
organisms  must  be  governed  by  rational  laws,  which  are 
necessarily   dictated   by  an    intelligent   principle;    this 
employs  in  matter  only  its  quantitative  reason,  reserving 
the  qualitative  for  the  procreations  conscious  in  them- 
selves, that  is,  the  mind.     By  this  inquiry  into  the  first 
effect  we  arrive  at  the  fundamental  distinction  or  division 
of  bodies  into  inorganic  and  living,  which  division  has 
no  other  essential  difference  than  that  of  the  origin  of 
these  bodies.     We  have  already  seen   that  writers  on 
natural   history   usually  try  to   explain  the   difference 
between  living  and  non-living  matter  by  simple  material 
analysis,  a  vain  task,  because  the  mental  impossibility  of 
qualitative  distinctions  among  objects  is  demonstrated, 


334 


VIII.   THE   UNIVERSE. 


62.    CAUSAL  DETERMINATION. 


335 


and  the  analogy  of  the  material  which  composes  all  the 
natural  kingdoms  is  therefore  widely  recognized.  Con- 
vinced of  the  truth  of  this  conclusion,  some  authors  have 
contented  themselves  by  saying  that  the  sole  differential 
or  essential  characteristic  of  inorganic  bodies  is  that 
they  have  no  life  ;  but  that  does  not  convey  any  scientific 
knowledge  ;  it  is  a  phrase  that  involves  a  mere  play  of 
words,  in  which  the  definition  is  already  connoted  in  the 
same  term  which  it  is  attempted  to  define.  Some  other 
naturalists  correctly  deny  all  differences  among  existing 
things,  but  then  they  erroneously  affirm  that  everything 
in  the  universe  is  the  same  thing,  and  that  there  is 
nothing  supernatural. 

Organic  generation  is  an  eternal  secret  ;  it  is  a 
mystery  that  will  never  be  penetrated  by  human  intelli- 
gence, and  the  cause  of  such  a  change  is  a  supernatural 
power  which,  although  unknowable  in  its  nature,  we 
are  compelled  to  acknowledge  in  accordance  with  the 
following  argument.  No  one  doubts  that  man  is  the 
supreme  being  among  those  which  have  material  ex- 
istence ;  now  where  is  the  man  who  has  the  power  to 
execute  a  work  according  to  the  formula  of  cosmos 
r  =z  f ;  or,  in  other  words,  can  man  practically  resolve 
as  cosmos  resolves  the  problem  of  continuous  movement  t 
What  being  in  nature,  then,  can  elaborate  anything 
according  to  the  formula  r  >  f,z.s  is  the  work  of  organic 
generation?  Hence,  it  is  most  irrational  to  suppose 
that  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  associating 
among  themselves,  could  be  the  authors  of  the  uprearing 
of  a  structure,  whose  conditions  and  work  are  far  beyond 
what  even  the  best  mechanician  would  dare  attempt  to 
produce.  If  the  pretension  of  resolving  the  problem  of 
perpetual    movement    {r  =  f)    has    been    opportunely 


i 


qualified  as  an  insane  idea,  how  must  we  qualify  the 
pretence  of  resolving  mechanically  the  problem  of  the 
cause  of  vital  movement,  which  produces  (according  to 
the  formula  r  >  f)  organic  generation  in  its  two  forms — 
growth  and  reproduction  ? 

Causation  implies  determination,  but  not  all  deter- 
minations are  causal,  material  determinations  being,  on 
the  contrary,  effects  or  derivations  which  can  be  brought 
within  the  logical  domain  of  reason,  as  in  them  we  can 
know   the   consequents   if  the   antecedents   are   given. 
Our  mission  in  Physiology  does  not  extend  to  causal 
determination,  but  only  to  those  which  are  mechanically 
derived,  and  the  conditions  of  these  never  depend  on 
one  thing  alone,  but  in  the  mutual  intermotion  of  many 
things ;    because  if  only  one   thing  were   sufficient   to 
determine   an  effect   in   the  world,  the  cause  and    the 
effect  would  be  co-existing,  and  then  all  effects  would 
take  place  simultaneously.     The  contrary  of  this  is  the 
case  with   the  changes  effected   by  the   system  ;   they 
successively  result  from  the  mutual  action  of  parts,  that 
is,  from   interaction.     Then   all   the   conditions   of  the 
parts  are  equally  co-operating   causes  of  the  effected 
determination,  and,  therefore,  objective  things  must  be 
such   that  when  the  causes  are  determined   the  effect 
must  necessarily  be  produced    in   accordance  with   the 
guarantee  which  the  universal  postulate — uniformity  of 
nature — offers.     This  conclusion   is  altogether  different 
from  that  which  supposes  that  one  objective  thing  alone 
can  be  a  sufficient  cause  without   taking   into  account 
its   relations  with   or   dependence  on  the  others ;    for, 
we   repeat,   in    order   to   obtain    any   effect   in   nature, 
co-operation   is  always  necessary.     Therefore,  the  word 
"  cause"  in  Physiology  has  only  a  relative  signification,  it 


336 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


62.   CAUSAL  DETERMINATION, 


ZVJ 


represents  a  nominal  abstraction  of  all  conditions 
necessary  to  effect  a  physiological  change,  which  is  never 
a  creation  but  only  a  variation  in  the  form  of  propa- 
gated movement.  Thus  objective  things  are  not  created 
nor  destroyed  in  their  mutual  actions,  they  only  pass 
into  other  conditions.  The  effect  of  such  a  change  may 
be  phenomenal  (manifested),  or  only  potential  (not 
manifested  to  the  senses  and  known  only  by  mental 
reflection) ;  but  in  neither  case  do  we  know  the  actions 
in  themselves,  but  only  the  relative  consequences  of  the 
interactions. 

We  have  no  real  experience  of  interaction  ;  it  is 
only  a  mental  affirmation  inferred  from  the  antecedents 
and  consequents  of  a  change  ;  so  to  know  how  material 
or  physiological  actions  are  produced  is  a  problem  of 
the  intellect,  and  not  any  fact  of  irreflexive  experience. 
Nevertheless,  action  is  commonly  conceived  by  phy- 
sicists in  a  figurative  or  imaginary  representation  as 
something  transferred  from  one  object  to  another,  but 
if  the  states,  conditions,  or  attributes  of  objects  are 
nothing  that  can  be  separated  from  them  they  cannot 
be  transferred  ;  the  idea  of  transference  results  only 
from  the  mental  tendency  to  substantiate  abstractions. 
The  cases  which  have  principally  given  rise  to  the 
erroneous  conception  of  substantial  transference  are 
those  observed  in  the  propagation  of  molar  movement 
and  heat.  When  a  body  in  movement  communicates 
movement  to  another  body  and  stops  moving  itself,  we 
see,  that  is,  if  we  do  not  employ  reflection  in  the  data 
of  experience,  that  the  movement  has  been  apparently 
transferred  to  that  other  body.  The  same  apparently 
occurs  in  the  propagation  of  heat ;  the  body  which  is 
hottest  loses  temperature  in  proportion  to  the  rise  of 


M 


temperature  in  proximate  colder  bodies.  But  these  are 
facts  to  which  we  must  apply  rational  interpretation  in 
order  not  to  be  deceived  by  sensual  or  irreflexive  ap- 
pearances ;  and  these  facts  are  called  transferences  in 
a  figurative  sense,  expressing  then  a  description  of  the 
facts  but  without  interpretation  or  explanation  of  them. 
Besides,  in  such  a  descriptive  denomination  we  do  not 
employ  the  appropriate  terms,  because  a  state  or  con- 
dition without  an  object  is  as  inconceivable  for  the 
mind  as  it  is  impossible  for  matter.  In  all  interaction 
then  there  is  no  transference  ;  there  is  only  propagation. 
Nevertheless  we  employ  the  word  transference  for  the 
cases  in  which  propagation  is  produced  with  change 
into  a  different  kind  of  movement,  as  heat  into  molar 
movement,  etc.  ^ 

Interaction  is  impossible  if  we  consider  things  as 
independent,  because  what  is  a  reality  absolutely  inde- 
pendent must  contain  the  cause  of  its  determinations 
in  itself,  but  what  is  under  the  necessity  of  interaction 
must  have  the  conditions  for  its  determinations  in  other 
things  as  well  as  in  itself  Any  attempt  to  harmonize 
independent  things  in  a  universe  by  means  of  forces 
or  physiological  influences  results  only  in  a  play  of 
words  impossible  to  understand.  Such  expressions  as 
"  universe "  and  "  abstract  forces  "  represent  concepts 
which  cannot  be  combined  in  any  manner  among  them- 
selves because  they  are  contradictory  to  one  another. 
The  abstract  forces  considered  by  all  scientists  as 
causal  or  primordial  determinations  must  be  altogether 
eliminated  from  scientific  terminology,  as  in  such  a 
signification  they  are  only  expressions  of  ignorance  in 
the  succession  of  effects.  In  addition  to  this,  inter- 
action and    independence  are   also   contradictory,  and 


338 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


62.    CAUSAL  DETERMINATION. 


339 


as  we  are  obliged  to  admit  interaction  among  objects 
we  must  deny  independence.  Therefore,  we  affirm 
that  the  plurality  of  things  is  reduced  to  dependence 
under  a  comprehensive  being  which  can  be  the  unity 
and  co-ordinator  of  the  parts  and  of  the  whole.  When 
a  series  of  things  varies  with  order  it  is  impossible  that 
all  can  be  absolute  unities  ;  there  must  exist  one  which 
directs  the  community,  and  the  whole,  being  a  system, 
can  never  be  comprehended  as  the  sum  of  the  parts, 
but  the  parts  must  be  considered  as  phases  of  the  whole 
subordinate  to  an  absolute  and  truly  independent  unity, 
to  an  omnipotent  being  to  which  everything  is  omni- 
present. Thus,  then,  interaction  in  nature  is  not  a 
property  of  matter  itself;  it  is  an  effect,  and  there- 
fore the  generation  of  mutual  actions  depends  on  the 
Creator. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  investigate  how  this  cause 
determines  interaction ;  the  physiologist  must  study 
only  the  derived  effects,  that  is  to  say,  the  extrinsic 
or  objective  action  of  matter,  which  consists  in  a  mutual 
collision  either  of  the  material  elements  or  of  bodies,  a 
mechanical  change  or  variation  of  movement  being  pro- 
duced as  the  effect  of  such  collision  or  contact.  It  is 
impossible  to  determine  any  physiological  change  with- 
out contact  between  that  which  is  the  relative  cause 
and  that  which  is  effected,  the  action  which  appears  to 
be  produced  at  a  distance  always  presupposes  propa- 
gation by  means  of  interactions  in  which  the  play  of 
some  intermediary  propagator  is  unknown  ;  there  are 
no  physiological  actions  at  a  distance  such  as  are  im- 
plied in  the  enigmatic  forces,  attraction  and  repulsion. 
The  proper  meaning  of  force  then  is  reduced  to  re- 
present the  measure  of  the  resultant  from  interactions 


■J 


in  nature,  and  the  notion  of  conservation  of  force  in 
the  mutual  action  among  the  things  of  the  physical 
world  is  an  imperative  necessity  in  the  universal  system, 
while  it  follows  the  uniform  evolution  which  we  observe 
in  the  present  and  the  past  of  nature. 

The  cause  of  interaction  is  a  metaphysical  principle 
as  we  have  already  said  ;  everything  in  the  universe 
results  from  a  primordial  action  whose  agent  is  un- 
known to  the  light  of  our  intelligence,  which  can  only 
acknowledge  it  by  the  results  of  such  action.  The  uni- 
verse being  in  such  marvellous  harmony  gives  us  faith 
in  optimism,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  doctrine  which  teaches 
that  the  primordial  agent,  operating  as  a  determining 
cause  in  the  generation  of  organisms,  orders  all  things 
for  the  best  ;  so  that  the  fatal  cases  in  the  mechanism 
of  the  world  are  derived  or  secondary,  that  is,  subordi- 
nate to  the  interaction  of  living  and  non-living  bodies, 
and  are  therefore  only  accidental  results.  Although  it 
is  impossible  to  draw  any  exact  parallel  between  the 
supernatural  subject  and  the  object,  our  imagination 
can  draw  an  artistic  representation  of  this  case  com- 
paring the  Great  Organizer  to  an  engineer  who  directs 
all  the  operations  of  an  engine  for  which  his  arm  is 
the  moving  power.  If,  then,  application  of  the  machine 
is  made  to  some  work,  and  if  in  its  interaction  with  the 
cosmic  medium  which  is  around  or  on  which  it  operates 
a  break  occurs  in  it,  that  is  an  accidental  effect  in  rela- 
tion with  the  motor  or  moving  power.  Now  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  in  which  all  the  changes  of  a 
machine  are  connected  with  one  another,  however  dif- 
ferent they  may  be,  the  changes  of  the  universe  are 
also  connected,  resulting  from  the  same  motor,  which 
acts  with  a  constant  law  in  the  mutability  of  objects, 


340 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE, 


63.   RECAPITULATION. 


341 


;■*■ 


directing  and  preserving  the  world  with  uniformity,  so 
that  we  observe  His  law  is  inviolable  and  eternal. 

Accordingly  in  all  and  everything  the  light  of 
reason  illuminates  the  idea  of  the  necessity  of  a 
Supreme  Cause  which  reconciles  in  His  infinite  unity 
the  individuality  and  community  of  the  universe,  con- 
sidering all  natural  things  as  partial  elements  of  a 
system  which  has  its  transcendental  action  only  by  the 
influence  of  a  fundamental,  infinite,  absolute,  and  inde- 
pendent Being  in  which  everything  else  finds  the  cause 
and  reason  of  being  as  it  is. 

§  63.   Recapitulation   of  the   Concept  of  the 

Universe. 

Physiology  presupposes  attributive  identity  (only 
one  substance  in  activity  or  movement),  the  differences 
being  due  only  to  relative  changes  of  space,  or  of  time, 
or  of  both.  The  only  possible  knowledge  of  nature 
depends  on  the  condition  that  all  change  is  a  trans- 
formation. Matter  changes  by  the  union  or  separation 
of  parts,  but  through  all  these  transformations  we  must 
suppose  that  material  substance  is  always  identical  ; 
and  we  may  say  the  same  in  regard  to  movement, 
which  may  be  distributed  into  greater  or  smaller  masses 
in  a  form  either  manifested  or  latent,  but  material 
activity  is  always  movement.  Thus  the  Great  Archi- 
tect with  His  true  purposes  of  goodness,  beauty,  and 
harmony,  directs  organic  constructions,  engenders  in 
them  disposable  energy  and  phenomenal  movements, 
governs  the  course  of  cosmic  material,  but  without 
changing  the  total  quantity  of  matter  in  movement,  that 
is,  without  ever   newly  creating   or   annihilating.     He 


only  engenders  relative  metamorphoses  in  the  redistri- 
bution of  the  same  quantity  of  matter   in  movement. 
The  concept  of  conservation  of  movement  is  altogether 
different  from  the   continuation   of  the  actual  energy 
of  objective  things  in  the  universe  ;  the  former  expresses 
a  fact  derived  from  the  true  creation,  while  phenomenal 
activity  is  constantly  engendered  by  the  transformation 
of  potential  energy  in  organisms  under  the  direction 
of  the  Primordial   Motor.     The  work  directed  by  the 
Creator  not  only  preserves  the   quantity  of  matter  in 
movement   in   its    mechanical    relations,   but   the   per- 
sistence  of    the   Supreme   purpose    in   the   good    and 
beauty  of  its  execution  is  denoted  by  the  uniformity  of 
nature.     This  ultimate  postulate  is  presupposed  before 
any  calculation   or   determination  of  the   quantitative 
relations   are   made  ;  it   is   directly  induced   from   the 
qualities  or  subjective  differences,  and  for  this  reason  we 
may  say  that  the  postulate  uniformity  of  nature  is  the 
fundamental  principle  of  attributive  abstractions  formed 
from    objective   analogies,  while  the   principle  of  con- 
servation  of  energy  is   the    fundamental   law   for   the 
relations  from  objective  differences.     Accordingly,  the 
true   idea  of  conservation  or   persistency  in  universal 
mechanism  presupposes  that  the  partial  forms  of  the 
enunciation  of  that  principle  are  erroneous,  so  that  we 
must  not  say  there  is  conservation  or  indestructibility 
of  mass  in  the  world,  because  the  quantity  of  mass  is 
variable ;    neither   can  we    affirm    the   conservation  or 
indestructibility    of   abstract    movement,   because    the 
quantity  of  existing  force,  considering  this  separately 
from  mass,  is  not  always  the  same,  but  varies  like  any 
partial  relation. 

Without  the  evidence  of  the  principle  of  successive 


342 


VIIL    THE   UNIVERSE. 


63.   RECAPITULATION, 


343 


gil- 


continuity  and  uniformity  in  nature  between  antecedents 
and  consequents,  science  could  not  infer  its  great  prog- 
nostications ;  it  could  not  determine  by  the  present  state 
of  things,  either  the  past  or  the  future,  as  there  is  no  doubt 
that  our  scientific  calculations  would  fail  if  there  coulc' 
actually  be  new  creation  or  annihilation  in  the  factors 
of  mechanism.  But  it  is  impossible  that  the  regularity 
of  the  established  and  necessary  order  in  cosmos  shouk 
fail,  because  the  work  of  the  Almighty  being  true,  good 
and  beautiful  in  absolute,  it  could  not  be  otherwise  than 

as  it  is. 

In  the  comprehensive  theory  of  cosmos  we  omit  the 
intervention  of  any  agent   acting  as  causing   force,  as 
we  have  done  in  the  theory  of  Analytical  Physiology, 
and  in  Biology  also  we  deny  the  intervention  of  any 
special  force  in  life.     In  this  manner  we  dethrone  the 
gods   of   the  scientific   Olympus,   and   admit  only  the 
one  of  most   elevated    rank — the    Directing   Power   of 
Vitality  which  cannot  be  other  than  the  Creator.     Force 
must  never  be  considered  as  having  an  existence  separate 
from  objects  ;  mechanical  force  is  not  an  absolute  anc 
primordial  cause  of  nature,  but  simply  a  measure,  anc 
therefore  it  is  a  relative  determination  of  quantity,  ai 
effect  which  becomes  at  the  same  time  the  proximate 
cause  of  manifested  actions,  so  that  it  is  a  secondary 
cause   in   the    successive    changes   of  nature.      Forct 
expresses  the  determination  of  the  quantity  of  move- 
ment propagated  in  a   physiological  change,  or  in  the 
changes  of  a  partial  system,  as  occurs  in  the  synthesi> 
of  life.     If  we  conceived  force  in  a  metaphysical  as  weL 
as  in  a  mechanical  sense,  it  would  become  an  equivocal 
term,  representing  then  in  the  metaphysical  signification 
the  True  Cause,  the  Primordial  or  Engendering  Potence 


of  Vitality,  because  if  we  prefix  to  the  word  "  force  "  the 
adjective  primordial  we  indicate  what  the  Divinity  does 
in  cosmos,  instead  of  the  effected  potence  and  phe- 
nomena. 

All  phenomena  are  mechanical  in  the  true  sense  of 
this  word,  as  they  are  always  the  effect  of  some  change 
of  matter  in  movement ;  therefore,  it  is  erroneous  to 
admit  the  abstract  conception  of  mechanism  as  an  inde- 
pendent reality ;  all  phenomena  take  place  within  the 
universal  organism  in  which  any  mechanical  notion  or 
effect  of  movement  cannot  be  separately  conceived  ;  it 
can  be  conceived  only  as  a  mental  or  verbal  abstraction 
without  an  existence  independent  of  the  bodies,  like 
colour  or  any  other  so-called  property. 

All  phenomena  compared  according  to  the  standard 
of  discrete  quantity  are  quantivalent  in  their  mutations, 
so  that  all  natural  changes  (molar  and  physico-chemical) 
are  subordinate  to  the  rational  principles  of  quantity, 
as  the  so-called  laws  of  mechanism  are  nothing  more 
than  corollaries  derived  from  the  universal  principle  of 
conservation.  In  any  functional  transference  or  propa- 
gation of  vitality,  as  in  any  other  physiological  change, 
we  must  admit  the  principle  of  mechanical  quantiva- 
lence,  that  is,  a  proportional  interchange  in  the  energy 
of  antecedents  and  consequents.  Therefore,  in  organism 
as  well  as  in  inorganic  machines,  there  is  always  a  direct 
relation  between  the  molar  work  produced  and  the  heat 
expended  ;  this  in  turn  must  be  in  direct  relation  with 
the  chemical  movements  which  produce  it,  and  these 
reactions  must  be  proportional  to  the  progenic  currents 
which  change  the  position  of  the  molecules. 

If  Mechanics  were  well  known  in  its  most  compre- 
hensive or  etymological  signification,  it  would  be  con- 


*^ 


314 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


63.   RECAPITULATION. 


345 


sidered  the  science  which  would  interpret  the  genesis  of 
natural  phenomena,  and  would  embrace  the  study  and 
explanation  of  all  material  mutations  in  cosmos,  deter- 
mining the  force  of  every  change,  which,  in  corpuscular 
matter,  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  mass,  and  half 
the  square  of  the  velocity.  The  physical,  chemical,  and 
biological  theories,  now  widely  disseminated  under  con- 
tradictory principles  must  be  thus  unified. 

All  material  changes,  whether  manifested  or  not, 
though  multiple  in  the  sensual  appearance,  always  arise 
from  matter  in  movement.  Hence  we  repeat  that  all 
mechanical  force  must  always  be  supposed  as  a  con- 
crete measure  comprehending  the  two  factors  of  all 
movement — mass  and  velocity  ;  we  must  never  suppose 
the  ideal  existence  of  abstract  forces  without  dimen- 
sions moving  across  empty  space,  neither  must  we  admit 
them  to  explain  the  functions  of  organism. 

Cosmic  and  biological  syntheses,  inasfar  as  we  can 
know  them,  are  under  the  control  of  Mathematics.  A 
true  inquiry  into  nature  and  the  proof  of  physiological 
truths  has  for  a  base  the  facts  of  extrinsic  experience 
from  which  our  reason  calculates  the  relations  which 
must  serve  us  to  develop  the  Physiological  Theory. 
Mechanical  theorems  are  the  real  guide  of  physiological 
science;  the  principle  of  conservation  is  common  to 
physical  and  chemical  changes,  to  acts  of  vitality,  and 
to  astronomic  movements ;  the  calculation  of  the 
movements  of  visible  bodies  (Molar  Mechanics)  must 
be  applied  to  the  invisible  particles  called  molecules 
(Molecular  Mechanics),  and  to  progenic  (Progenic  Me- 
chanics). When  we  question  the  material  world,  what- 
ever its  state  may  be,  the  determination  of  quantity  by 
calculation  {i.e.  by  the  infallible  law  of  number)   is   a 


^'  fe^  t;,^ 


help  of  undoubted  exactitude.  But,  unfortunately,  we 
cannot  numerically  determine  phenomena  in  all  cases ; 
science  has  scarcely  passed  from  the  analytic  acqui- 
sitions of  irreflexive  experience,  qualities  for  this  reason 
being  yet  erroneously  considered  as  objective  properties. 
In  actuality  much  imperfection  of  true  scientific  know- 
ledge yet  prevails ;  nevertheless,  it  does  not  weaken 
the  base  on  which  the  principle  of  conservation  rests, 
because  our  intelligence,  penetrating  more  deeply  than 
our  senses,  foresees  the  true  analogy  where  sensations 
show  us  what  falsely  appear  to  be  essential  differences. 
Although  up  to  the  present  time  science  has  not  been 
able  to  prove  numerically  all  physiological  facts,  we 
have  arrived  at  an  ultimate  principle  which  comprehends 
them  all,  both  known  and  unknown — that  is,  though 
much  remains  to  be  discovered,  we  have  sufficient  know- 
ledge to  declare  that  all  the  laws  of  the  science  of 
nature  are  comprehended  in  the  principle  of  propor- 
tional interchange  (quantivalence),  which  is  synonymous 
with  the  principle  of  persistency  or  conservation.  For 
this  reason,  after  numerous  observations,  we  have  con- 
vinced ourselves  that  all  future  discoveries  will  be  subor- 
dinate to  the  universal  principle  of  conservation,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  ultimate  postulate  of  uniformity ; 
hence  the  true  progress  of  the  Physiological  Theory 
consists  in  explaining  the  derivation  of  all  empirical 
laws  actually  proclaimed  in  Physics,  Chemistry,  Cos- 
mology, and  Biology,  by  the  conservation  of  energy  in 
Cosmic  Mechanism. 

In  the  Physiological  Theory  we  must  not  confound 
the  evident  principle  of  conservation  of  energy  with  the 
erroneous  supposition  of  "  continuity  "  in  transformism  ; 
this  doctrine  employs  the  word  "  conservation  "  in  such  an 


346 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 


63.   RECAPITULATION. 


347 


ample  sense  that  it  completely  lacks  a  fixed  signification. 
Furthermore,  transformists  include  in  "  continuity  "  the 
reason  of  its  antithesis,  "  variation,"  although  they  pre- 
tend to  disguise  the  opposition  of  contradiction  of  terms 
with  the  adjective  "infinitesimal,"  and  then  qualify  as 
continuous  the  variations  they  call  infinitesimal.  The 
Physiological  Theory  resolves  this  problem  without  the 
intervention  of  moving  forces  in  nature,  and  without 
appealing  to  such  a  fallacy  as  that  of  transformism  ;  in 
fine,  it  determines  that  cosmos  does  not  follow  the 
phases  of  transformistic  evolution,  but  is  in  a  true  invo- 
lution. 

We  admit  only  one  substance  and  one  form  of 
activity  in  matter,  but  not  atomic  unity.  To  prove 
the  identity  of  matter  or  substantial  equality  of  all 
the  objects  of  nature  it  is  sufficient  to  know  that  we 
cannot  perceive  in  them  more  than  differences  in  the 
relations  of  space  and  time,  as  all  sensations  result  from 
propagation  of  movement  which  can  be  but  of  one 
quality.  Qualitative  differences  are  formed  in  the  mind 
from  such  quantitative  changes  ;  they  are  not  really 
objective,  but  subjective,  therefore  progene  (the  ether  of 
the  physicists)  must  be  considered  in  its  natural  quality 
or  essence  as  a  substance  identical  with  ponderable 
matter,  and  all  bodies,  even  those  considered  elemental 
in  Chemistry,  must  also  be  considered  identical  in  their 
essential  quality. 

We  must  not  confound  this  idea  of  material  unity 
with  that  asserted  by  atomists.  We  cannot  admit 
atomic  unity,  because  among  other  reasons  the  principles 
of  thermodynamics  are  sufficient  proofs  to  convince  us  ot 
the  error  of  the  atomic  hypothesis  of  progene,  which 
must   necessarily  be   distributed   into  variable  parcels. 


4        A  A 

\1       :. 


« 


Ws'-'i 


;if; 


■Mill 


The  atomic  hypothesis  assimilates  progene  to  the 
gaseous  state,  but  this  is  completely  contradictory  to 
facts,  and  insufficient  to  explain  imponderable  changes. 
The  difference  between  progene  and  atoms  lies  only  in 
a  relation  of  condensation,  the  atom  being  an  invariable 
corpuscle  of  almost  twice  the  condensation  of  progene, 
as  the  calculations  of  propagated  energy  lead  us  to 
infer  by  showing  us  a  dissipation  of  46  per  cent,  of 
manifested  or  living  energy  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  a  loss  resulting  from  gravitation,  an  effect  of  the 
action  of  progene  on  atoms.  The  condensation  of 
matter  in  atoms  must  be  equal  in  all  bodies,  as  such  a 
ratio  is  invariable,  the  differences  between  atoms  thus 
being  in  volume  and  perhaps  in  shape.  Such  an  idea 
of  substantial  equality,  though  undoubtedly  a  true  one 
according  to  mental  analysis,  has  not  a  practical  confir- 
mation, for  in  the  laboratory  all  bodies  cannot  be 
reduced  to  one  alone. 

The  realistic  idea  of  chemical  transformism  pretends 
to  be  based  on  the  unity  of  matter,  but  such  a  hypo- 
thesis, like  all  those  which  try  to  explain  the  evolution 
of  cosmos,  surpasses  the  limits  of  positive  knowledge. 
We  must  restrict  ourselves  to  the  possibility  of  physio- 
logical succession  discovering  always  and  everywhere  in 
nature  effects  alone  ;  we  can  never  explain  the  true 
cause,  nor  investigate  the  primordial  genesis  of  cosmos. 
Such  inquiries  belong  to  Metaphysics.  With  this  restric- 
tion of  Physiology  to  calculate  effects  alone,  ie.  to  estab- 
lish the  relative  laws  among  the  objects  of  nature,  we 
will  consider  progene  as  the  first  material  element  of 
evolution  in  cosmic  mechanism.  The  different  forms  of 
matter  in  the  constitution  of  cosmos  may  be  shown  in 
a  progressive  table  as  follows  : — 


M 


48 


fa 


Simple 

bodies 

practically 

irreducible. 

Compound 

bodies 

reducible 

to  simple 

bodies. 


VIII.    THE   UNIVERSE. 

1.  Progene  =  imponderable  matter  (ether  of  the  physicists). 

2.  Protile  (helium  ?)  =  primary  condensation  (perfect  gas  ?). 

3.  Most  permanent  gases  =  secondary  condensation. 

4.  Simple  bodies  that  can  take  a  liquid  form  (many  elements). 
,  5.  Simple  permanent  solids  =  carbon. 

,  6.  Compounds  without  carbon. 

7.  Ternary  compounds  of  carbon  =  hydrocarbonates. 

8.  Quaternary  compounds  of  carbon  =  albuminoids. 

9.  Protoplasm  =  organic  granular  matter. 

10.  Ovules  =  unicellular  organisms  and  germs  of  all  living 

bodies. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


349 


It  has  been  proved  that  we  cannot  interpret  this 
scale  by  the  doctrine  of  infinitesimal  continuity — the 
fundamental  principle  of  transformism  ;  and  that  we 
must  not  suppose  because  matter  leaps  infinitesimally, 
or  changes  gradually  from  one  form  to  another,  that 
such  a  change  can  be  made  by  matter  alone  without  the 
intervention  of  the  Motor. 


PRINCIPAL  CONCLUSIONS  OF  THIS 
PHYSIOLOGICAL  THEORY  OF 
COSMOS. 

Summary. 

1.  Physiological  theory  is  still  very  defective,  especially 
in  the  quantitative  or  correlative  determination  of  those 
changes  in  which  propagated  movement  is  invisible  in 
inorganic  bodies  as  well  as  in  the  functions  of  vitality. 

2.  The  principle  of  conservation  of  energy  enunciates 
a  quantitative  correlation   among  the  antecedents  and 
consequents  of  all  physiological  or  mechanical  changes  ; 
it  is  only  an  inference  drawn  from  the  facts  of  inertia  of 
matter,  and  it  has  as  a  future  guarantee  uniformity  of 
nature ;  hence  it  is  not  a  causal  determination. 

3.  Mechanism — object  of  Physiology — is  nothing  really 
independent ;  it  is  only  the  concept  of  a  mental  abstrac- 
tion in  which  we  make  the  ellipses  of  the  Primordial 
Cause  and  of  the  mental  subject  ;  hence  it  comprehends 
the  effects  of  material  motion  alone. 

4.  Matter,  in  order  to  be  an  object,  can  only  be 
conceived  as  a  substance  in  activity,  occupying  some 
space  and  existing  in  relations  of  time.  Hence  the 
division  of  object  into  matter  and  force,  mass  and  move- 
ment, protoplasm  and  irritability  is  purely  ideal  or 
conceptual. 


350 


CONCLUSION, 


5.  Physiological  change  always  results  from  propaga- 
tion of  movement  without  any  new  creation  or  annihila- 
tion. Hence  the  differences  among  material  changes 
are  only  quantitative — relations  of  space  and  time  ;  the 
qualitative  nature — substance  and  activity — being  always 
the  same  throughout  all  nature. 

6.  Monotheism  is  the  true  doctrine  of  all  causal  deter- 
mination, admitting  only  one  cause  of  unity  in  the  uni- 
versal system,  and  hence  rejecting  abstract  or  causing 
forces,  and  also  atomic  unity  throughout  nature. 


First  Conclusion. 

§  64.  Physiological  Theory  is  still  very 

Defective. 

The  method  of  proceeding  with  physiological  studies 
is :  first,  to  analyze  material  things  or  objective  events 
as  far  as  their  ultimate  factors  ;  second,  to  investigate 
the  laws  which  govern  their  combination  or  succession  ; 
and  third,  by  the  union  of  such  factors  in  accordance 
with  their  laws  to  construct  mentally  the  complete  object 
in  all  the  forms  of  its  sole  activity — mechanism.  When 
this  last  deduction  is  impossible  we  cannot  arrive  at  a 
complete  or  mechanical  explanation,  and  in  fact  there 
are  many  cases  in  nature  which  are  not  yet  susceptible 
of  a  rational  explanation  ;  this  occurs  with  most  of 
the  changes  in  which  movement  is  invisible,  and  with 
the  functions  of  vitality.  We  do  not  take  into  account 
the  primordial  effect  which  is  produced  in  organized 
beings,  and  which  may  be  known  only  as  a  fact  referred 
to  the  Prime  Cause,  but  never  as  constructed  by  mani- 


»ft 


\\ 


1  ^  " 


64.   PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  IS  DEFECTIVE.       351 

fested  antecedents,  and  therefore  it  is  not  within  the 
reach  of  physiological  acquisitions  properly  so-called. 
Our  study,  then,  is  limited  to  material  concepts,  not 
including  either  the  knowledge  about  the  origin  and 
end  of  things  or  mental  activity.  The  doctrine  of  pri- 
mordial genesis — Cosmogony — is  not  physiological ;  it 
is  metaphysical,  because  the  facts  of  creation  and  organic 
generation,  in  which  we  comprehend  not  only  the  acts 
of  reproductive  inheritance,  but  also  of  nutritive  de- 
velopment, cannot  and  never  will  be  rationally  con- 
nected with  mechanical  antecedents  ;  in  creation  and 
in  vital  generation  there  is  a  general  order  or  uniformity 
which  reveals  the  succession  of  the  changes  of  nature  in 
accordance  with  an  intelligent,  supreme  law,  and  this 
idea  is  contradictory  to  chaos  or  fatal  mechanism.  Phy- 
siology must  treat  only  of  knowledge  acquired  by  sen- 
sual data  ;  it  must  not  comprehend  the  totality  of  the 
universal  system,  but  only  the  mechanical  world,  whose 
actual  synthesis  is  the  proximate  effect  of  the  activity 
of  living  bodies. 

Physiological  explanation  of  change  must  never  pass 
beyond  the  numerical  equivalent  or  correlation  between 
antecedents  and  consequents,  but  this  is  not  to  assert 
that  we  find  tenable  the  idea  of  scepticism,  which  affirms 
that  a  mental  satisfaction  of  causality  can  be  found 
merely  by  numerically  determining  the  relations  of 
material  effects.  This  assertion  is  erroneous,  yet  it  is 
still  a  truth  that  physiological  synthesis  cannot  have  a 
perfectly  developed  theory  so  long  as  it  cannot  mathe- 
matically explain  the  changes  which  are  combined  in 
vitality  and  in  cosmos.  If  we  maintain  a  physiological 
theory  under  the  preceding  limits  or  restrictions  we 
fulfil  a  just  demand  of  science  ;  our  intelligence  asks 


mnnfilt^ltfMiWiiitiiit 


352 


CONCLUSION. 


"^ 


for  continuity  and  law  in  the  system,  since  to  imagine  a 
system  without  order  in  its  process  would  be  as  absurd 
as  to  imagine  a  present  state  with  only  temporal  rela- 
tions with  the  past. 

All  physiological  laws  and  propositions  must  be  in 
accordance  with  a  fundamental  relation  of  all  mechanical 
changes  ;  such  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  conser- 
vation. But  many  inexactitudes  in  the  enunciation  of 
secondary  laws,  and  in  the  explanation  of  material 
events,  are  noticed  in  all  writers,  for  they  frequently 
contradict  the  said  fundamental  principle;  and  in 
addition  to  this  there  are  still  many  great  difficulties  in 
explaining  some  observed  laws  and  facts.  Again,  some 
difficulties  make  reference  to  very  palpable  events,  as 
those  of  molar  mechanics,  and  yet  an  error  has  been 
committed  in  their  concept,  originating  in  a  fallacy  of 
language,  taking  what  are  simply  mental  abstractions 
as  if  they  were  concrete  realities. 

Accordingly,  we  have  mentioned  three  different 
defects  of  Physiological  Theory;  one  is  a  defect  of 
origin  of  change,  which  is  insurmountable  and  in  reality 
beyond  the  limits  of  Physiology,  and  therefore  we  will 
not  further  concern  ourselves  here  with  this  point ;  the 
second  arises  from  fallacies  of  scientific  language,  either 
in  contradiction  to  the  fundamental  principle  of 
mechanism  or  in  the  realization  of  abstractions  ;  and 
the  third  is  a  defect  of  rational  experience. 

The  defects  of  contradictory  or  realistic  fallacies 
must  be  corrected  at  once,  as  such  a  correction  is  purely 
a  work  of  reasoning  upon  experimental  facts;  and  so 
now  we  are  to  give  the  rule  to  clear  the  way  on  this 
point,  but  here  in  this  conclusion  we  do  not  concern  our- 
selves with  the  inexactitudes  of  the  mechanical  concepts 


64.   PHYSIOLOGICAL    THEORY  IS  DEFECTIVE.        353 

of  Other  authors,  as  the  conclusions  on  this  criticism  will 
be  continued  in  the  followed  sections. 

It  is  certain  that  some  laws  of  Physics  are  very  clear 
in    their   consequences,  such  as   the   law  of  gravity  in 
massive  or  molar  mechanics  ;    for,  assuming  the  truth 
of  the  law,  it  is  easy  to  deduce  the  results  as  rational 
necessities,  the  mind  then   feeling  completely  satisfied. 
Nevertheless,  serious  misinterpretations  arise  from  the 
confusion     between     theor}^    and     practice    in     molar 
mechanics,  because  the  former  is  based   in   a  series  of 
ideal  abstractions  which  are  very  far  removed  from  mas- 
sive realities.     It  is  clear  that  this  is  in  obedience  to  the 
necessity  of  passing  in  the  explanation  from  the  simple 
to   the  complex,  because   without   beginning  with  the 
simplest  case  the  complex  constructions  could  have  no 
foundation.    Without  such  a  method,  speculative  theory 
would    be   impossible,  and    for  this   reason   Mechanics 
supposes  first  points  and   lines,  formed  by  continuous 
points,  then  single  forces  acting  on  points,  afterwards 
bodies  absolutely  rigid,  cords  perfectly  flexible,  rotatory 
wheels  or  pulleys  and  other  implements  without  friction, 
etc.,  so  that  the  mecjianician  in  the  practical  application 
of  his  theories  needs  to  take  into  account  the  difference 
between   such  data   and   objective   reality  in   order  to 
calculate  resistance.     But  if  the  mechanician  represents 
the  reality  in  mind  by  means  of  such  abstractions,  also 
considering  matter  as  always  homogeneous  and  abso- 
lutely  passive    to   which    movements    and    forces   are 
applied,  he  must  never  confound  such  suppositions  with 
real  existences,  and  must  constantly  bear  in  mind  that 
such   forces   are   not   causes ;    that  they   represent  the 
result  of  the  production  of  movement  in  the  changes  of 
nature  ;  and  that  the  movements  and  forces  manifested 

2  A 


354 


CONCLUSION. 


by  the  mutual  action  of  objects  express  only  the  measure 
of  a   limited    portion  of  the    material  changes   of  the 

system. 

In  regard  to  the  defect  of  the  present  lack  of  rational 
experience,  we  may  say  that  the  idea  of  the  physiologist, 
as  of  the  mechanician,  is  to  deduce  every  phenomenal 
consequent  taking  place  in  the  world  from  its  antecedent ; 
but  this  cannot  be  done,  as  yet  at  least,  with  phenomena 
whose  antecedents  are  invisible  movements.  Never- 
theless, there  is  sufficient  reason  to  affirm  that  if  we 
could  see  interstitial  changes  more  clearly  we  would 
also  be  capable  of  connecting  their  antecedents  and 
consequents  with  the  same  mechanical  necessity  as  we 
can  now  proceed  with  massive  propagations  of  move- 
ment. 

Many  physiological  problems  are  yet  unresolved, 
such  as  the  exact  calculation  of  all  the  transferences 
of  heat,  chemical  metamorphoses,  sound,  light,  and 
electricity,  and  yet  we  may  infer  on  principle  that  such 
processes  are  at  bottom  necessarily  identical  with  the 
simplest  ordinary  mechanics,  because  they  are  all  either 
potential  or  manifested  changes  of  the  redistribution  of 
matter  in  movement;  and  consequently  in  whatever 
form  movement  may  be  produced,  it  must  always  be  of 
the  same  qualitative  nature,  the  difference  being  only 
in  the  quantitative  factors — relations  of  space  and  time. 
Thus,  then,  no  one  who  comprehends  the  idea  of 
mechanism  and  movement,  not  only  visible  but  in- 
visible, can  doubt  for  a  moment  that  the  changes  pro- 
duced in  chemical  metamorphoses,  for  instance,  must 
be  subordinate  to  mechanical  laws  as  well  as  are  plane- 
tary movements,  nor  can  he  have  any  doubt  that  the 
properties  of  complex   molecules  depend  on  those  of 


\ 


I 


64.   PHYSIOLOGICAL    THEORY  IS  DEFECTIVE.       355 

the  elemental  components  according  as  they  exist  in 
the  compound,  and  therefore  there  is  no  reason  for  con- 
sidering, as   most  chemists  do,  that  chemical   reactions 
are  not  so  mechanical  as  the  actions  of  molar  gravitation. 
Furthermore,  in  the  same  manner  we  must  interpret 
all  nature  under  the  mechanical  concept,  confining  our 
intelligence  within  the  limits  of  reflecting  only  on  the 
results  of  effects  without  inquiring  into  the  Primordial 
Cause.     Although  up  to  the  present  time  the  result  of 
investigations   upon  the  changes  of  vitality  has  been 
altogether   unsuccessful,  the  connection  between  ante- 
cedents and   consequents  being  still  unknown,  such  a 
connection  is  a  fact  of  rational  experience,  but  we  can- 
not  yet   mathematically   determine   the  results   in    an 
organic  machine,  and  therefore  we  cannot  numerically 
mark   the   propagations  of  movement  in    vitality,  not 
even  to  the  simple  extent  that  we  can  in  the  inorganic 
world.     Synthetic  Physiology,  then,  especially  Biology, 
must  spring  from  the  irreflexive  state  of  actuality,  sur- 
passing its  descriptive    limits   to  investigate  rationally 
in  their  quantitative  correlation  the  effects  derived  from 
the  genesic  Potence  of  organism.     When  it  makes  this 
progress   vitality,  except  in  its  protomotion  or  proto- 
genition,  will  have  the  same  mechanical  explanation  of 
its  effected  changes  as  the  simple  phenomena  combined 
in  it ;  but  we  must  never  confound  such  explanations 
with  the  things  themselves,  as  the  result  of  the  process 
of  reasoning  is  not  the  same  as  the  genesic  order  of 
things ;  it  is  precisely  inverse  to  that  ;  the  first  effects 
we   discover  are  those   proximate  to   our   senses,  and 
consequently    farthest    removed    from   the   Primordial 
Cause.     This   inversion    between    the   logical    order  of 
thought  and  the  genesic  order  of  cosmic  activity  in  the 


■^'''*^^'''**'''***11lilM^^^ 


i 


356 


CONCLUSION. 


65.    CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY. 


357 


1^- 


changes  of  movement  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  in 
order  to  avoid  a  lapse  into  the  monistic  error  of  trans- 
formism. 

Second  Conclusion. 

§  65.  Conservation  of  Energy  is  the  Funda- 
mental Principle  of  Mechanism. 

The  principle  of  conservation  of  energy  signifies  that 
among  the  antecedents  and  consequents  of  physio- 
logical change  there  is  always  quantitative  correlation. 
The  sole  guarantee  for  applying  this  affirmation  to 
future  events  is  the  universal  postulate  uniformity  of 
nature  which  is  inferred  from  our  strong  belief  that  the 
facts  of  inertia  of  matter  will  hold  true  at  all  times  and 
in  all  material  cases.  Hence  the  principle  of  conserva- 
tion simply  marks  a  relation  among  objects  and  is  not 
the  causal  determination  of  mechanism. 

Material  nature  is  inert  in  living  as  well  as  in  non- 
living bodies  ;  but  we  must  not  confound  the  term 
inertia,  as  is  frequently  done,  with  that  of  absolute 
passivity  or  absolute  repose.  Technically  considered, 
inertia  signifies  indifference  to  movement,  or,  what  is 
the  same,  that  there  is  nothing  in  nature  capable  of 
engendering  or  annihilating  the  existing  activity  of 
matter,  this  only  changing  from  latent  to  manifested 
states  and  the  reverse.  Thus  we  admit  the  phrase  "  force 
of  inertia,"  which  means  the  resistance  of  bodies  to  effect 
a   movement,   or   to   change   either   their   direction    or 

velocity. 

The  enunciation  of  the  principle  of  conservation 
and  that  of  the  law  of  inertia  are  at  bottom  synonymous, 
and  that  contradiction  which  apparently  exists  between 


I 


I 


such  terms  arises  from  the  vulgar  idea  of  inertia,  which 
is  acquired  by  the  sensation  of  the  effort  necessary  to 
move  ponderable  matter,  as  this  always  has  some  energy 
of  position  which  is  the  effect  of  the  pressure  of  progene 
gravitating  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth.  The 
rational  signification  of  the  word  inertia  and  its  true 
concept  in  science  is,  we  repeat,  that  all  which  is 
comprehended  in  the  material  world  is  indifferent  to 
any  form  of  movement,  and  consequently  that  all 
objective  change  is  produced  by  something  apart  from 
matter,  as  this  has  no  power  by  itself  to  increase, 
diminish,  or  change  the  form  of  its  activity;  so  that  great 
contradiction  results  from  the  language  of  physicists 
when  they  affirm  that  the  sole  real  things  are  mass  and 
energy,  and  that  matter  is  completely  passive. 

If  inertia  of  matter  implies  that  all  manifested 
activity  is  determined  by  supermaterial  or  immaterial 
generation,  and  hence  primordially  originated  by  some 
agent  apart  from  matter  itself,  the  principle  of  conserva- 
tion of  energy  must  not  be  confounded  wuth  the  cause 
which  determines  the  persistency  of  objects  in  their 
actual  manner  of  being.  The  principle  of  conservation 
sums  up  all  the  energy  of  matter,  potential  as  well  as 
manifested,  but  the  actual  state  of  cosmos  supposes  a 
persistent  reparation  of  the  manifested  energy  which  is 
constantly  lost  in  the  mechanical  changes  of  the  world  ; 
such  a  reparation  or  protomotion  is  a  change  which 
must  be  engendered,  and  therefore  it  can  take  place  only 
in  organism.  Mechanism  by  itself  alone,  i.e.  without 
the  activity  which  causes  living  generation,  would  soon 
be  completely  reduced  to  absolute  uniformity  of  move- 
ment, and  therefore  would  be  without  any  manifestation 
or  phenomenal  change.     But   to  suppose  such  perfect 


358 


CONCLUSION. 


equilibrium  and  such  uniform  movement  among  all  the 
parts  of  cosmos,  if  this  could  exist  without  living  bodies, 
is  exactly  the  same  as  the  imaginary  representation  of 
a  world  existing  constantly  in  invariable  oscillation,  and 
therefore  without  phenomena.  Nevertheless,  beyond 
this  state  still,  the  doctrinaires  of  transformistic  evolution 
have  reached  to  imagine  a  primordial  existence  of  the 
world,  in  which  all  and  everything  was  equal  with 
absolute  uniformity.  Cosmos,  then,  would  be  a  perfectly 
continuous  thing,  and  therefore  in  absolute  repose ;  but 
as  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  any  kind  of  evolution 
arising  from  absolute  repose,  transformists  endow  the 
prime  material — progene — with  an  inherent  movement, 
which,  according  to  them,  was  at  first  persistent  and 
immutable.  How,  then,  could  progene,  being  matter, 
and  therefore  inert,  be  the  source  of  all  which  is  actually 
manifested,  if,  in  such  a  uniform  movement,  and  con- 
sequently without  change,  no  phenomena  can  be  pro- 
duced ?  Inertia  of  matter  is  at  present,  has  been  in 
the  past,  and  will  be  in  the  future  the  true  condition 
of  cosmic  mechanism.  Matter  continually  undergoes 
changes  or  mutations,  but  is  never  newly  created  nor 
annihilated,  and  consequently  material  changes  can 
only  be  conceived  as  propagations  of  movement  whose 
energy  is  preserved,  and  those  changes  which  are  mani- 
fested to  the  senses  constituting  phenomenal  activity 
simply  result  from  propagation  of  movement  governed 
by  the  principle  of  conservation,  as  is  inferred  from  the 
undoubted  facts  of  inertia  of  matter.  Accordingly,  in 
the  mechanism  of  the  world  the  same  energy  is  always 
preserved — conservation  of  matter  in  movement — and 
from  this  principle  all  natural  laws  are  derived,  and 
therefore  the  problems  which  come  within  the  sphere  of 


66.    OBJECT  OF  PHYSIOLOGY. 


359 


Physiology  are  exclusively  mechanical  or  material. 
But  if  the  activity  of  cosmos  presupposes  nothing 
but  propagation  of  movement  in  accordance  with  the 
principle  of  conservation,  this  is  not  the  cause  of 
mechanism  but  only  the  law  according  to  which  nature 
is  governed,  not  by  itself  but  by  what  is  capable  of 
being  causal  determination.  This  solution  given  to  the 
highest  physiological  problem  is  justified  in  this  book 
and  in  the  special  study  of  every  material  change  in 
"  Theory  of  Physics." 


Third  Conclusion. 

§  66.  The  Object  of  Physiology  is  Mechanism. 

Mechanism  only  comprehends  the  effects  we  can 
discover  in  the  material  world  ;  it  is,  then,  the  concept 
of  a  mental  abstraction  in  which  nothing  is  really  inde- 
pendent, its  changes  resulting  from  intermotion  which 
is  subordinate  to  the  Primordial  Cause.  Thus,  making 
the  ellipses  of  the  generating  cause  and  of  the  mental 
subject,  the  physiologist  completely  separates  the  object 
of  Physiology  from  Metaphysics,  and  for  this  reason  we 
must  not  admit  any  other  cause,  not  even  in  vitality, 
than  the  determining  cause  of  organic  generation.  This 
becomes  manifested  in  two  functional  ways  :  as  molecular 
generation— nutrition,  and  as  cellular  generation— repro- 
duction. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  we  may  say  that  the  object 
of  Physiology  is  purely  mechanic,  but  this  must  not 
induce  us  to  fall  into  radical  positivism,  which  admits 
only  the  existence  of  what  is  physiologic  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, apart  from  mechanism,  we  must  not  deny  a  true 


36o 


CONCLUSION. 


cause,  though  this  cause  must  be  treated,  not  physically, 
but  metaphysically.  Experience  is  the  only  source  of 
all  the  data  (sensations)  by  which  reason  infers  the  laws 
of  nature,  these  laws  being  relatively  fixed  or  constant ; 
but  reason  also  discovers  that  neither  the  existence  nor 
the  conditions  of  cosmic  mechanism  are  ontological 
necessities  or  independent  things,  and  that  the  exten- 
sion, duration,  and  character  of  cosmos  are  as  the  plan 
of  the  Creator  designed  them.  A  physiological  ex- 
planation of  cosmos  only  conduces  to  the  knowledge 
of  what  manner  within  the  system  of  nature  one  objec- 
tive state  results  from  another,  and  in  what  manner 
some  factors  are  combined  to  produce  a  determined 
result ;  physiological  theory,  then,  must  not  inquire  into 
the  True  Cause,  though  it  is  obliged  on  principle  to  affirm 
its  existence,  but  circumscribe  itself  to  consider  the 
world  in  its  actual  state  and  from  this  to  infer  the 
history  of  the  order  and  the  laws  presiding  over  material 
changes,  which  are  primarily  determined  by  the  cause 
implicit  in  the  system,  although  it  only  manifests  its 
actuality  directly  upon  organic  generation. 

Under  this  criterion  physiological  theory  simply 
comprehends,  first,  the  analysis  of  the  factors  of  nature 
— Analysis  of  Cosmos  ;  and  second,  the  construction  of 
the  resultant  by  the  union  of  such  factors  in  accordance 
with  natural  laws — Synthesis  of  Cosmos;  in  this  manner 
the  explanation  of  a  physiological  change  consists  in 
connecting  it  with  its  antecedents  in  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  material  or  objective  succession ;  and  the 
explanation  of  a  compound  change  consists  in  referring 
it  to  its  components.  For  this  reason  a  correct  analysis 
of  living  functions  leads  us  to  the  knowledge  that 
though  they  are  highly  complex  changes  they  have  no 


66.    OBJECT  OF  PHYSIOLOGY. 


361 


special  quality ;  that  physiological  synthesis  consists  in 
a  natural  concurrence  of  the  simplest  material  changes 
whose  union  forms  a  partial  synthesis  in  inorganic, 
organic,  and  planetary  bodies  and  that  these  together 
form  only  physical  cosmos — not  the  whole  universal 
system.  Hence,  physiological  theory  in  its  synthesis 
tries  to  compass  the  combined  study  of  the  same 
changes  of  nature  which  are  separately  studied  in  Special 
Analytical  Physiology  (see  "  Theory  of  Physics  ").  In 
fact,  in  Synthesis  of  Cosmos,  we  do  not  study  anything 
new,  as  the  living  functions  are  but  combined  changes 
like  those  that  take  place  in  the  inorganic  world,  but 
because  of  this  we  must  not  arrive  at  the  erroneous 
conclusion  of  materialism  which  affirms  that  vitality 
results  from  material  activity,  when  in  the  true  order 
of  succession  the  changes  of  the  inorganic  world  are 
secondarily  derived  through  the  activity  of  living 
matter. 

Living  generation  is  the  sole  primordial  effect  of 
nature,  and  it  cannot  be  produced  by  propagation  of 
movement  or  mechanical  derivation  ;  it  is  the  original 
or  primordial  change  from  which  the  continuous  per- 
turbation of  physical  cosmos  is  derived.  Living  matter 
cannot  change  its  physico-chemical  state  as  can  matter 
which  is  not  alive  ;  it  has  a  special  structure  or  organiza- 
tion which  can  only  be  formed  by  organic  generation. 
The  multiplication  of  living  beings  is  really  an  incom- 
prehensible procreation  which  cannot  be  produced  by 
mechanical  propagation,  as  the  inorganic  world  con- 
tinually experiences  a  loss  of  living  force  which  is 
repaired  by  organism,  thus  determining  the  conservation 
or  persistency  of  material  change  in  the  universe.  Thus 
we  have  explained   planetary  movements,  gravity,  and 


36; 


CONCLUSION. 


66.    OBJECT  OF  PHYSIOLOGY. 


363 


terrestrial  magnetism,  by  progenic  impulsions  arising 
from  the  difference  between  the  periodical  changes  in 
vegetable  and  animal  organisms,  and  also  from  the 
difference  between  both  organic  kingdoms  during  the 
day  and  night,  and  we  have  also  explained  the  photo- 
thermic  propagation  of  sunlight,  not  by  solar  combustion, 
but  by  the  interference  of  the  heat  radiated  from  all  the 
planets  to  the  surface  of  the  sun  which  is  situated  in 
the  focus  of  their  orbits. 

Vitality  is  the  proximate  effect  by  which  all  the 
material  changes  of  the  world  are  directly  originated  ; 
all  the  changes  of  inorganic  matter  are  secondary  effects, 
and  serve  as  a  medium  for  the  development  of  organic 
matter.  The  functional  synthesis  of  organism  or  vitality 
is  then  the  proximate  cause  of  the  uniformity  of  nature, 
that  is  to  say,  of  the  persistent  uniformity  with  which 
the  material  mutations  or  operations  of  nature  are 
effected  ;  this  means  the  constant  succession  of  material 
manifestations  or  phenomena  whose  differences  are  in 
fact  very  gradual  and  not  sudden.  But  the  cause  of  the 
elective  capacity  of  generation  is  a  complete  mystery, 
which  can  only  result  from  the  direct  influence  of  the 
Supreme  Motor,  the  Supernatural  Subject  which  we 
admit  and  recognize  only  by  its  effects. 

We  must  also  recognize  as  metaphysical  or  im- 
material activity  the  mental  subject  whose  process  is 
inexplicable  by  the  acts  of  mechanism,  its  characteristics 
being  differences  of  quality  and  therefore  very  different 
from  the  characters  of  movement,  which  is  always  the 
same  in  its  qualitative  attributions — substance  and 
activity.  We  conceive  the  mind  by  the  attribute  of  its 
own  consciousness,  and  mental  acts  may  be  only  related 
to  time  without  our  being  able  to  predicate   of  them 


11 
I 


any  phenomenal  activity,  that  is,  any  change  directly 
appreciable  by  the  senses,  and  any  relation  of  space ; 
while  the  object  or  material  being  has  as  a  constant  and 
indispensable  characteristic  the  predicate  of  extension, 
which  implies  attribution  not  only  of  material  substance, 
but  of  movement,  and  relation  not  only  of  space,  but  of 
time.  In  reality  we  can  perceive  an  evident  distinction 
between  the  material  and  the  mental :  the  material  is 
inert  according  to  the  principle  of  conservation,  and  is 
known  by  the  relations  of  space  and  time  or  predicates 
of  quantity,  while  the  mental  is  active  and  is  known  by 
the  attributions  of  differential  activities  or  predicates  of 
quality.  In  the  material  changes  of  mechanism  the 
antecedents  and  consequents  are  equivalent,  there  is 
neither  creation  nor  annihilation  of  anything  (conserva- 
tion of  energy  =  inertia  of  matter),  while  in  mental 
process  the  general  conclusions  are  not  equivalent  to 
their  antecedents,  as  they  comprehend  the  universal 
concept  of  all  cases  of  the  same  kind  though  we  can 
never  observe  more  than  a  limited  number  ;  inductive 
thought,  then,  creates  some  ideas  in  contradistinction  to 
inertia  of  matter.  Material  differences  have  mathema- 
tical reason,  as  changes  of  matter  are  propagations  of 
movement  expressed  by  quantitative  differences  or  rela- 
tions of  space  and  time,  connoting  identity  of  (qualita- 
tive) attribution,  that  is,  substantial  identity  and  identity 
of  activity — motion  ;  while  mental  differences  have  no 
more  reason  than  the  states  of  consciousness  (different 
kinds  of  perceptions)  ;  these  qualitative  differences  of 
activity  are  inexplicable  by  propagation  of  movement, 
and  in  them  we  cannot  determine  relations  of  space. 
The  knowledge  of  mechanical  or  physiological  changes 
must  be  acquired  by  means  of  experience  or  observa- 


iilifMfiiiiitrjrittfiTiiiiPiftiiiiiiiiiiiMliW 


364 


CONCLUSION. 


67.    CONSTITUTION  AND  ACTIVITY  OF  MATTER.      365 


tion  ;  it  cannot  be  reached  by  pure  reason  alone  ;  while 
the  knowledge  of  the  mental  process  can  only  be  known 
by  our  own  conscious  activity  which  is  not  manifested 
to  the  senses. 


Fourth  Conclusion. 

§  6^.  Matter  is  an  Active  Substance,  but  its 
Activity  is  of  Course  Derived. 

Irreflexive  experience  distinguishes  matter  and  force 
as  separate  things,  and  these  mental  abstractions  give 
rise  to  the  erroneous  concept  of  matter  current  among 
physicists.  Objects  are  not  aggregates  of  matter  and 
force,  neither  are  inorganic  bodies  aggregates  of  mass 
and  movement,  nor  are  living  bodies  formed  by  the 
aggregation  of  protoplasm  and  irritability.  A  body, 
even  a  living  one,  is  in  reality  one  thing  alone ;  such 
terms  as  "matter"  and  "force,"  etc.,  represent,  not  dif- 
ferent things,  but  only  the  ultimate  notion  of  objective 
attributes.  Hence  there  are  no  such  things  as  force, 
movement,  and  irritability  in  the  sense  of  abstract 
or  causing  agents  which  can  determine  the  changes 
of  nature. 

Any  material  thing  or  object  is  necessarily  a  substance 
in  activity — movement,  whose  measure  is  called  force, 
and  whose  differences  depend  on  variable  relations  of 
space  and  time.  Force,  then,  only  represents  the  measure 
of  the  movement  which  is  constantly  propagated  through- 
out the  world,  and  is  but  a  mechanical  resultant  in 
accordance  with  the  principle  of  conservation.     Forces, 


we  repeat,  are  not  abstract  agents  or  primordial  powers  ; 
they  represent  the  resultant  measure  of  the  movements 
of  matter  which  are  natural  effects  mechanically  derived, 
and  which  are  constantly  changing  in  the  world,  without 
creation  or  annihilation,  in  accordance  with  the  evident 
fact  of  inertia  of  matter,  that  is,  always  preserving 
equivalent  energy  in  their  propagation.  But  this  affir- 
mation would  not  be  true  if  by  force  we  meant  (like 
many  writers)  the  product  of  half  the  mass  (quantity 
of  ponderable  matter),  and  the  square  of  the  velocity, 
for  such  a  product  is  not  the  same  throughout  the 
incessant  mutations  of  nature  ;  we  must  include  in  the 
total  quantity  of  mechanical  power  or  force  the  potential 
or  non-manifested  state  of  material  energy  which  results 
from  some  progenic  movements.  Accordingly,  abstract 
causing  or  generating  forces  in  nature,  as  attraction 
and  repulsion,  which  are  the  remains  of  the  supreme 
a7iima  miuidi  of  the  ancient  philosophers,  must  no  longer 
be  admitted,  the  word  "  force"  always  signifying  in  science 
the  measure  of  the  effects  of  propagated  movement. 
If  sometimes  we  do  not  discover  direct  propagation  in 
a  change,  it  is  because  there  is  indirect  transmission 
through  a  medium  which  is  not  constantly  manifested, 
and  in  order  to  explain  this,  we  must  now  briefly  express 
our  ideas  on  the  constitution  of  matter. 

Matter  is  not  continuous  in  extension,  it  could  not 
move  if  all  space  were  absolutely  full  ;  there  must  be 
diminutive  spaces  relatively  void  among  the  smallest 
particles  which  constitute  matter.  Ponderable  matter 
is  formed  by  invisible  and  indivisible  corpuscles,  which 
are  separated  from  one  another,  either  totally  or  partially, 
leaving  the  spaces  we  call  porocules.  Atoms  have  no 
determined  properties,  and  therefore  they  are  not  what 


liJIftiffea^iMiiKMh-^^ifrirrtiMii    \ 


-.66 


CONCLUSION. 


67.    CONSTITUTION  AND  ACTIVITY  OF  MATTER.      367 


the  chemists  suppose  them  to  be — the  determined 
equivalents  of  combination,  nor  what  is  determined  by 
what  they  call  atomic  weights  and  volumes  ;  nevertheless, 
in  the  phenomena  of  nature,  especially  in  chemical 
metamorphoses,  we  see  sufficient  reason  to  admit  atomic 
constitution  of  ponderable  matter,  though  we  do  not 
recognize  the  atom  as  an  object  of  fixed  determina- 
tions. 

The  atomic  interstices  of  bodies  contain  imponderable 
matter  or  progene,  but  this  does  not  fill  such  porocular 
spaces  in  absolute  but  only  relatively,  because  it  is 
always  in  oscillation,  and  thus  it  serves  as  the  universal 
medium  for  the  interaction  of  atoms  when  these  are  not 
in  contact.  The  gradual  interchange  in  the  propagation 
of  progenia  movements,  which  may  be  mutually  trans- 
ferred according  to  the  most  variable  proportions  with- 
out fixed  relations,  like  those  of  atomic  changes,  conduces 
us  to  the  belief  that  progene  must  exist  in  very  variable 
parcels  in  the  interstices  of  bodies. 

Not  only  are  atoms  of  the  same  qualitative  nature, 
but  atoms  and  progene  must  be  identical,  except  in 
their  density,  this  difference  being,  if  we  take  the  atom 
as  the  unity,  as  i  :  0'54.  DifTerences  of  matter,  then, 
are  only  quantitative,  inferring  this  from  the  mutual 
quantivalence  of  progenic  transferences  into  molecular, 
and  molar  changes,  and  vice  versd. 

Progene  cannot  change  in  its  physico-chemical  state  ; 
it  is  always  a  metafluid  which  is  distributed  in  very 
variable  parcels,  so  that  it  cannot  form  different  kinds 
of  irreducible  or  non-convertible  objects  as  ponderable 
matter  may,  on  account  of  the  geometrical  differences 
of  its  invariable  or  indivisible  atoms.  Although  we  have 
made  a  distinction  between  interstellar  and  interstitial 


progene,  such  denominations  do  not  mean  that  the 
progene  in  one  condition  cannot  change  place  with  that 
of  the  other  ;  on  the  contrary,  interstellar  and  interstitial 
progene  are  in  constant  mutual  interchange. 

We  have  rejected  the  idea  of  the  inherence  of  any 
properties  in  matter,  such  as  elasticity  and  movement, 
and  we  have  also  rejected  the  inherence  of  causing 
forces  like  the  hypothetic  attractions — affinity,  planetary 
attraction — and  the  hypothetic  repulsion  of  matter, 
engendering  heat  by  means  of  molecular  vibration, 
and  we  have  set  aside,  too,  the  existence  of  different 
imponderable  fluids,  as  luminous,  electric,  magnetic, 
and  nervous  fluids.  In  all  these  cases  we  admit  the 
intervention  of  the  medium  we  call  progene,  whose  real 
existence  must  be  recognized,  although  it  is  neither 
tangible  nor  ponderable.  The  affirmation  of  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a  metafluid  is  a  necessity  in  science,  in 
order  that  reason  may  explain  the  mechanism  of  the 
world  in  general  and  that  of  living  bodies  in  particular  ; 
its  existence  cannot  be  denied,  because  interstellar 
changes  suppose  propagation  of  movement,  and  if 
interstellar  space  were  empty,  nothing  could  move  in 
it ;  consequently  there  must  be  some  matter  in  move- 
ment there  serving  as  a  medium.  Thus,  also,  when  the 
diminutive  particles  of  a  body  are  approximated  and 
separated  in  order  to  produce  different  molecular  changes, 
we  must  admit  something  that  impulses  the  molecules 
to  the  execution  of  their  movements.  Besides,  such  an 
all-pervading  substance  is  directly  felt  by  the  eye  as 
light  and  by  the  ear  as  sound. 

The  first  change  of  movement  or  generation  of  living 
energy  in  universal  mechanism  takes  place  in  progene 
in  order  to  determine  the  molecular  and  molar  changes 


gJiMiiiiifeailtfif^^ 


368 


CONCLUSION. 


68     MATERIAL   CHANGE, 


369 


of  organic  generation.  But  to  effect  this  the  interven- 
tion of  a  power  superior  to  mechanical  propagations  is 
necessary,  as  mechanism  in  all  its  changes  dissipates 
living  energy,  which  is  constantly  repaired  by  the  said 
act  of  generation.  So  that  progene,  in  accordance  with 
its  etymological  meaning,  is  the  first-engendered  sub- 
stance, or  the  primordial  existence  in  mechanism,  and 
by  its  means  we  can  explain  all  the  changes  which  are 
apparently  effected  by  physical  agents,  as  attraction 
and  repulsion,  erroneously  supposed  to  be  forces  acting 
at  a  distance.  Furthermore,  progene  conceived  under 
different  forms  of  movement,  perfectly  explains  all  the 
potential  states  of  nature,  which  in  non-living  bodies, 
are  denominated  latent  and  radiant  heat  and  electricity, 
and  which  in  living  bodies  we  have  denominated  proto- 
genition,  biotension,  and  innervation. 

We  can  also  very  well  conceive  the  formation  and 
different  characters  of  inorganic  bodies  by  the  union  of 
atoms  and  progene.  Thus,  when  the  energy  of  the 
interatomic  progene  of  a  body  is  greater  than  that 
which  acts  in  external  pressure  the  body  is  in  a  fluid 
state,  and  on  the  contrary,  when  the  energy  of  inter- 
stitial progene  is  less  than  the  progenic  pressure  gravi- 
tating outside  the  body  a  solid  state  results.  A  liquid 
is  no  more  than  a  gas  reduced  by  molar  pressure  to  its 
minimum  capacity. 

Bodies  in  their  physical  state  may  be  either  incom- 
plex  or  complex,  the  greatest  complexity  on  earth 
resulting  in  living  matter,  whose  formation  we  cannot 
explain  by  the  simple  combination  of  atoms  and 
progene ;  it  cannot  be  mechanically  constructed  like 
inorganic  bodies.  From  what  has  been  said  the  physio- 
logical analysis  of  the  constitution  of  cosmos  shows  us 


I 


^ 


very   different   states   of  matter   which    may  be   more 
clearly  seen  in  the  following  table  : — 


Metafluid  state — 
progene  alone. 

Corporeal  state — 

atoms  and 
progene  together. 


{ In  unbroken  continuity  =  Interstellar  progene. 
\  In  minute  parcels 


All  states  of 


o    . 

rf"3  I    matter  together. 


Primordial 


=  Interstitial  progene. 
r  Gases. 
\  Liquids. 
{  Symmetric 
\  Asymmetric. 

=  Protoplasm. 


'  from  proto-  f  Organic  nuclei, 
plasm.       \  Organic  cellulae. 
^^"^^^  ^  from   cellu-  I  ^'^anic  fibres. 
Ise. 


Organic     membranes 
and  tubes. 


Accordingly,  in  all  which  is  the  object  of  sensual 
observations  there  is  no  unity  ;  in  the  physical  world 
irreflexive  experience  finds  plurality  as  in  the  immensity 
of  the  universe  we  see  scattered  innumerable  stars  and 
planets,  among  which  is  the  planet  we  inhabit ;  on  the 
earth  we  observe  many  different  kinds  of  bodies  which 
we  classify  as  organic  and  inorganic,  and  among  the 
last  there  are  many  different  persistent  substances  which 
are  considered  as  simple  or  elemental  because  they 
cannot  be  decomposed  nor  are  they  chemically  con- 
vertible or  reducible  to  one  another.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  sufficient  rational  proofs  to  affirm  that  quali- 
tative nature — substance  and  activity — is  always  the 
same  in  all  objects,  and  that  objects  differ  only  in  their 
quantitative  relations — space  and  time. 

Fifth  Conclusion. 

§  68.  Material  Change  is  but  Propagating 

Movement. 

We  have  said  that  cosmic  mechanism,  that  is,  physi- 
ological object,  nature  properly  so-called  or  the  material 

2  B 


iffiitiBriiHlfi'ii  iirrrfHii  ffinrnnimltillif 


.  ^■^.a..j.i,a^-aaM»{...i,»*.Kftqi'a«iiita{t 


m 


•r 


370 


CONCLUSION. 


I 


68.    MATERIAL   CHANGE. 


371 


world,  is  an  abstract  conception  of  matter  in  movement. 
In  truth,  all  the  changes  of  matter,  potential  as  well  as 
phenomenal,  must   be  explained   by  movement,  either 
visible  or  invisible,  this  last  not  being  manifested,  but 
beyond  the  reach  of  our  senses  on  account  of  its  minute- 
ness.    If  all  changes  of  matter,  potential   and    pheno- 
menal, always  consist  in  changes  of  place  and  then  at 
bottom    all    are    movement,  their   differences   are   only 
quantitative,  that  is,  differences  in  the  relation  of  space 
and  time;  but  the  manifestation  of  movement  or  pheno- 
menal condition  of  change  is  different  for  every  sense 
according  to  its  perceptible  factors,  and  from  this  arises 
the  qualitative  classes  of  sensations,  although  among  all 
their  originating  movements  there  can  be  only  quali- 
tative identity.     In  reality,  movement,  which  is  the  sole 
form  of  material  activity,  can  differ  only  in  its  quanti- 
tative relations,  and  therefore  the  so-called   qualitative 
differences  of  matter  are  merely  subjective  or  ideal  ;  they 
can  never  be  objective  or  material.     All  physiological 
change  implies  propagation  of  movement,   which  first 
becomes  manifested  in  living  bodies  in  the  genesic  acts 
of  vitality  in   the  collocation  of  material  in   order   to 
form  the  organic  structures  ;   all  the  other  changes  of 
cosmos  are  afterwards  determined  by  the  transference, 
or,  better  to  say,  by  the  propagation  of  such  genesic 

movement. 

Our  final  aim  in  this  Theory  of  Cosmos  is  to  explain 
correctly  the  material  circulation  in  the  world  by  pro- 
pagation of  movement,  in  a  way  contrary  to  the  present 
doctrines,  which  pretend  that  the  original  centre  of  such 
a  circulation  on  the  earth  is  solar  combustion  ;  but  even 
if  it  were  true  that  the  sun  was  persistently  burning,  it 
would  still  be  a  fact   that   a   thermochemical   change 


is  a  derived  and  very  secondary  one,  and  although  this 
kind  of  change  is  the  first  manifested  in  cosmos,  we 
must  admit  and  recognize  in  nature  the  priority  of  some 
potential  progenic  energy  which  is  necessary  to  impulse 
the  molecules  to  produce  the  primordial  metamorphoses 
of  living  matter.  But  as  organic  generation  is  a  mys- 
terious, supreme  fecundation,  the  remote  or  primordial 
cause  of  all  manifested  changes  (including  solar  light, 
gravitation,  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  planetary  move- 
ments) acts  upon  cosmos,  using  organism  as  the  sole 
medium. 

Let  us  now  see  how  Physiological  Theory  must 
explain  the  successive  evolution  of  material  changes, 
or,  better  to  say,  the  involution  of  cosmos.  The  first 
manifestation  in  the  world  is  trophic  or  nutritive  func- 
tion, and  so  chemical  changes  are  primarily  effected  in 
the  act  of  organic  collocation.  From  this  perturbation 
all  the  material  changes  which  we  can  discover  in  living 
as  well  as  in  non-living  matter  are  derived.  Thus,  the 
progene  necessary  for  moving  atoms  to  the  formation 
of  organic  structures  and  preserving  them  in  such  a 
complex  condition  is  freed  when  the  decomposition  of 
such  structures  takes  place ;  and  then  the  progene  that 
was  before  static— potential  state  which  we  call  bioten- 
sion,  becomes  dynamic,  either  in  oscillation  as  heat,  or 
in  a  confined  course  through  the  nervous  conductors  as 
innervation.  The  propagation  of  oscillatory  movement 
through  interstitial  progene  increases  the  force  whose 
effects  appear  to  be  the  result  of  molecular  repulsion, 
and  then  there  may  be  either  increase  of  temperature, 
or  change  of  physical  state,  or  else  another  chemical 
decomposition  may  take  place.  As  the  propagation  of 
oscillatory  revolution  of  progene  through  the  interstitial 


372 


CONCLUSION. 


parcels  of  all  bodies  constantly  occurs   the   effects  of 
an  apparent  repulsion  of  the  ponderable  particles  are 
produced,   and    for   this  reason   some   degree    of  heat 
always  exists  in  all  objects.     Heat  may  be  propagated 
either   by   conduction    or   by  radiation ;  the   radiating 
heat  which  is  propagated  from  all  planets  is  reflected 
by  all   celestial  bodies  but  principally  by  the  sun,  in 
which    the    interference  is   sufficient   to  determine  the 
photothermic  radiation  called  sunlight.     This  motion  of 
interstellar  progene  is  propagated  through  the  atmos- 
phere in  two  different  ways  because  some  of  the  progene 
collides  with  the  atoms  of  the  atmosphere  and  propa- 
gates to  these  some  concentric  or  centripetal  movement 
from  which  atomic  gravitation  results,  while  the  progene 
which  passes  through  the  interatomic  spaces  continues 
in  its  diffuse  propagation  as  light.     In  this  manner  all 
the  parts  of  the  earth,  including  the  atmosphere,  are 
under  the  pressure  of  ultra-atmospheric  progene,  which 
produces  the  force  called  gravity ;  and  this  apparently 
determines   in   corpuscles   and    bodies   the   effect   of  a 
centripetal  attraction  in  proportion  to  the  mass  and  the 
square  of  the  distance.     Heat  and  gravity  then  act  as 
opposing  movements  from  which  the  so-called  forces  of 
attraction    and   repulsion  result.     The  two  usual  ways 
of  manifesting  atomic  gravitation  are  by  the  so-called 
forces  of  cohesion  and  affinity  ;  the  first  is  referred  by 
the  authors  to  homogeneous  corpuscles,  and  the  second 
to  those  which  are  heterogeneous  and  which  may  com- 
bine  in    definite  proportions.      In   chemical   metamor- 
phoses all  kinds  of  movements  or  material  changes  may 
be  evolved,  which  in  the  correlative  order  of  their  fre- 
quency may  be  mentioned   as  follows:  (i)  oscillatory 
movement  which,  as  we  have  said,  produces  heat;  (2) 


68.    MATERIAL   CHANGE, 


373 


I 


progenic  currents  confined  in  conductors  which  may  be 
either  living  nerves  or  inorganic  matter,  principally 
metallic  wire  ;  in  the  first  case  we  call  the  current  inner- 
vation, and  in  the  second  dynamic  electricity ;  (3) 
diffuse  radiation  of  progene  which  may  impress  the 
retina  and  produce  the  sensation  of  light ;  and  (4),  in 
chemical  reactions  progene  may  become  freed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  produce  the  explosion  of  a  body,  whose 
particles  thus  coming  into  vibratory  movement,  and 
whose  progenic  parcels  coming  into  condensed  oscil- 
latory movement,  may  propagate  this  progenic  motion 
to  the  ear  and  produce  the  sensation  of  sound.  Any 
one  of  the  forms  of  invisible  movement,  but  especially 
heat,  is  frequently  transferred  into  visible  movement  or 
molar  work  both  in  animal  economy  and  in  machinery  ; 
among  these  works  the  principal  are  locomotion,  orbital 
and  rotatory  movements  of  the  earth  as  of  the  other 
planets,  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  gravity.  The  period- 
ical increase  and  diminution  of  gravity  alternating  every 
six  hours  is  very  remarkable,  and  this,  like  the  other 
planetary  phenomena,  directly  depends  on  the  periodical 
changes  of  organism,  which  varies  in  its  activity  twice 
every  twenty-four  hours,  according  as  it  is  day  or  night. 
Besides,  the  vegetable  world  generally  varies  twice  every 
year  according  to  the  seasons,  and  this  also  produces 
some  changes  in  gravity.  Thus,  some  material  acts, 
which  at  first  sight  or  to  irreflexive  observation  appear 
to  be  far  removed  from  a  possible  interpretation,  show 
to  reason  analogies  with  the  work  seen  in  the  simplest 
machine.  Accordingly,  the  circuit  of  change  in  the 
Cosmic  System  is  closed,  not  by  a  mechanical  propaga- 
tion like  combustion,  but  by  living  generation,  in  which 
there  must  be  the  immediate  intervention  of  a  Super- 


374 


CONCLUSION. 


69.     MONOTHEISM. 


375 


natural  Power  in  order  to  generate  living  force ;  this  is 
first  manifested  by  the  functions  of  living  matter,  which 
afterwards  propagates  its  action  to  the  inorganic  world, 
where  the  living  energy  is  dissipated  by  the  gravitating 
resistance  of  atoms,  until  it  is  newly  manifested  by  the 
protomotion  of  vitality — protogenition. 


Sixth  Conclusion. 

§  69.  Monotheism  must  be  proclaimed  in  Physi- 
ology, THUS  rejecting  ALL  ABSTRACT   FORCES 

IN  Nature. 

We  have  recognized  the  constant  generation  of  change 
in  material  activity  —  motion  —  with  conservation  of 
energy,  and  we  have  admitted  one,  and  only  one  causal 
determination  in  accordance  with  the  unity  of  the  sys- 
tem, because  we  must  reject  abstract  or  causing  forces, 
and  also  atomic  unity  throughout  nature. 

The  doctrinary  physiological  error  most  commonly 
upheld  by  physicists  is  realism,  they  taking  for  granted 
that  the  ontological  abstractions  of  passive  substance, 
and,  above  all,  of  abstract  or  causing  forces  are  real 
existences.  In  the  fundamental  definitions  given  by 
most  authors  such  ontological  realizations  are  expressly 
admitted,  as  may  be  seen  in  their  definitions  of  the 
words  attraction,  repulsion,  gravity,  affinity,  cohesion, 
and  so  on.  Such  definitions  show  that  authors  suppose 
that  invisible  particles  and  great  masses  are  endowed 
with  attractive  and  repulsive  forces  which  determine  all 
material  changes.  The  so-called  hypothesis  of  universal 
attraction  is  both  imaginary  and  absurd  ;  it  is  a  fallacy 
of  language ;  still  more  it  is  the  name  of  nothing,  because 


I 


the  existence  of  an  attractive  force  acting  at  a  distance 
is  an  impossibility.  To  admit  attraction  among  invisible 
particles  and  great  masses  is  an  incomprehensible  absur- 
dity. To  explain  gravitation,  chemical  combinations, 
cohesion,  etc.,  by  the  enigmatic  mutual  attraction  of 
matter  is  in  complete  contradiction  to  the  true  fact  of 
inertia  of  matter  and  the  law  of  conservation,  because 
attraction  means  constant  creation  of  force  or  mechani- 
cal power  as  a  continuous  source  of  movement,  and  if 
there  was  really  such  a  thing  as  attraction  matter  would 
be  the  generator  of  energy  instead  of  being  inert.  For 
this  reason  we  supplant  the  phrase  "  universal  attrac- 
tion "  by  that  of  "  atomic  gravitation,"  as  we  notice 
that  those  changes  in  which  matter  acts  as  if  mutually 
attracted  take  place  only  in  atomic  or  ponderable 
matter. 

In  order  to  explain  the  changes  in  which  objects  act 
as  if  they  were  in  repulsion,  and  also  to  explain  the 
reparation  of  living  force  in  mechanism,  most  authors 
admit  elasticity,  or,  what  is  the  same,  an  inherent  move- 
ment, rotation,  for  instance,  in  matter,  which  determines 
elasticity.  There  is  no  property  or  action  inherent  in 
matter,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  study  of  Special 
Analytic  Physiology  (see  "  Theory  of  Physics  "),  where 
all  phenomena  and  the  other  changes  of  nature  are  ex- 
plained without  the  intervention  of  elasticity  as  a 
causing  force.  Elasticity  is  a  movement  which  appears 
to  be  a  reaction  of  bodies  to  recover  their  dimensions 
when  these  are  changed  by  some  force  whose  action  has 
disappeared.  Such  an  apparent  inherence  of  abstract 
or  causing  force  in  bodies  depends  on  progenic  oscilla- 
tion, or,  better  to  say,  is  a  resultant  of  the  relative 
interaction    of    progene    and    atoms,    and    this    resul- 


''iiiftfiiii'miiitf<ft^'"^''^^^'^*«*i''a^aafe^ 


»l 


376 


CONCLUSION. 


\m\ 


69.     MONOTHEISM. 


377 


tant  is  variable  according  to  the  relative  disposition 
of  these  constituents ;  thus  fluids  react,  manifesting 
great  elasticity  of  expansion  when  the  pressure  to 
which  they  are  submitted  decreases  ;  while  most  solids 
react  in  a  very  defective  manner  when  their  dimensions 
are  changed  by  some  external  pressure  or  traction  ; 
and  among  those  solids  in  which  elasticity  is  more 
noticeable  we  observe  reaction  in  two  different  forms, 
one  instantaneous,  and  the  other  vibratory. 

Accordingly,  elasticity  is  not  a  property  inherent  in 
matter;  it  is  an  objective  condition  which  cannot  be 
absolute  but  relative,  and,  therefore,  it  is  erroneous  to 
pretend  that  it  can  be  the  cause  which  repairs  the 
dissipation  of  living  force  in  cosmos.  We  may  say  the 
same  of  the  relativity  of  all  other  properties  which  are 
considered  by  most  authors  as  inherent  to  material 
elements  such  as  movement,  extension,  and  impenetra- 
bility, and  which  like  elasticity  are  relative  conditions 
resulting  from  the  intermotion  of  progene  and  atoms 
according  to  their  aggregation  in  bodies.  It  is  not 
only  unnecessary  for  science,  but  also  far  removed  from 
our  understanding  to  recognize  causing  or  abstract  forces 
in  matter;  we  do  not  need  to  and  must  not  admit 
attraction  anting  celestial  bodies,  nor  must  we  admit 
the  molecular  forces  of  cohesion,  adhesion,  and  chemical 
affinity,  nor  any  vital  force  apart  from  the  Supreme 
Generator,  and  hence,  such  enigmatic  hypotheses  as 
those  of  attraction  and  repulsion  must  be  supplanted 
by  the  rational  idea  of  the  production  of  material  change 
by  the  propagation  of  movement,  either  by  direct  im- 
pulse, or  through  intermediary  or  indirect  contact  of 
progene  from  molecule  to  molecule,  as  well  as  from 
star  to  star. 


When  Physiology  tries  to  explain  evolution  of  nature, 
it  concerns  itself  only  with  secondary  effects  or  deutero- 
genic  changes,  and  does  not  study  the  cause  of  the 
change  which  is  engendered  in  a  primordial  manner. 
The  problem  of  the  generation  of  change,  which  consists 
in  the  production  of  living  force  by  means  of  potential 
energy,  is  irresoluble  by  mechanism,  as  it  is  more  distant 
from  realization  than  the  production  of  continuous 
movement  in  a  machine.  Here  we  have  precisely  the 
mystery,  the  superhuman,  whose  agency,  although 
imperceptible  by  the  data  of  the  senses  and  by  intrinsic 
intuition,  the  light  of  our  reason  admits  and  names  by 
many  words  as  the  Divine,  the  Omnipotent,  etc.,  and 
whose  power  is  capable  of  engendering  the  continuous 
change  of  cosmos  acting  upon  organism  according  to 
the  formula  r>/,  that  is,  manifested  resultant  greater 
than  living  force  employed.  In  spite  of  this  truth  many 
writers  distinguished  for  their  scientific  descriptions 
have  cynically  affirmed  the  philosophic  error  that  belief 
in  a  God  is  always  a  refuge  of  ignorance.  This  needs 
no  higher  commentary  than  simple  reasoning,  which  at 
least  is  not  controlled  by  the  mental  pride  which  makes 
such  men  presume  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  universe 
which  can  resist  their  penetrating  vision,  and  from  this 
they  draw  their  final  conclusion  that  "  nothing  exists 
outside  the  dominion  of  the  senses  !  "  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  justly  accuse  religious  beliefs  in  having 
frequently  served  as  a  mask  for  ignorance.  Who  doubts 
that  it  is  a  superstition  to  refer  directly  to  the  Creating 
Cause  or  Prime  Motor  any  material  or  mechanical 
change  which  is  operated  in  conformity  with  the  formula 
r  <  ff  These  are  natural  changes  produced  simply  by 
propagation  of  movement.     But  in  such  a  superstitious 


378 


CONCLUSION'. 


69.    MONOTHEISM. 


379 


reference  an  error  of  succession  has  been  committed  by 
taking  the  remote  cause  for  the  proximate,  yet  this  is 
of  no  such  consequence  as  and  much  more  excusable 
than  to  deny  the  Generating  Cause  and  suppress  the 
concept  of  succession,  after  the  manner  of  atheists. 

Again,  irreflexive  experience  and  the  realization  of 
ideas  in  the  order  of  their  acquisition  and  teaching,  has 
conduced  many  writers  to  imagine  that  life  results  from 
the  union  of  mechanical  forces,  and  they  give  no  other 
reason  for  this  idea  than  that  every  one  of  the  changes 
of  organism  is  also  produced  in  the  inorganic  world. 
In  this  manner  the  observed  facts  of  cosmos,  which  are, 
of  course,  relations,  and  therefore  descriptive,  are  con- 
sidered by  renowned  writers  as  genesic ;  such  is  the 
error  of  the  conception  of  Laplace  concerning  the 
evolution  of  the  solar  system,  and  of  all  the  ideas  of 
modern  evolutionism  and  transformism.  Any  trans- 
formistic  doctrine  is  not  an  advancement  from  the 
indefinite  towards  the  definite,  it  is  purely  a  phenomenal 
description  of  nature — a  graphic  representation  of  the 
world  to  the  senses — but  it  does  not  genesically  explain 
anything ;  it  does  not  teach  us  to  reason  out  the  process 
of  causality. 

Universal  effects  are  of  two  kinds,  spiritual  and 
material ;  the  spiritual  are  the  subject  of  direct  per- 
ception, and  the  material  are  the  objects  perceived,  not 
directly,  but  by  the  interaction  of  the  senses,  both  with 
the  external  world  and  the  mind  ;  but  the  Primordial 
Cause  of  all  effects  in  the  universal  system  is  one  alone 
which  is  neither  subject  nor  object  of  perception  in  our 
mind,  but  is  truly  the  Creator  and  Generator  of  all  we 
perceive.  Nevertheless,  the  existence  of  God,  mind, 
and  matter  are  inconceivable  as  really  independent  of 


^^^^« 


or  separate  from  one  another — that  is  to  say,  our  under- 
standing can  only  hold  the  ideal  abstraction  or  nominal 
independence  of  any  of  the  said  entities  ;  we  cannot 
truly  comprehend  a  real  being  which  could  be  cause 
without  effect,  nor  mental  subject  without  material 
object,  or  vice  versd,  comprehending,  of  course,  in  this 
concept  of  universal  dependence  the  mechanism  of  life 
as  well  as  that  of  the  whole  cosmos.  For  this  reason 
the  traditional  truth  of  Christian  revelation  of  the 
separate  existence  of  God,  soul,  and  body  is  and  always 
will  be  a  complete  mystery,  inexplicable  by  words  and 
impenetrable  to  the  intelligence.  The  problems  belong- 
ing to  this  transcendental  Trinity  are  beyond  the  limits 
of  Physiology  ;  they  belong  to  Metaphysics. 

Physiological  explanations  can  never  pass  from  the 
numerical  equivalence  of  correlation  between  ante- 
cedents and  consequents,  but  this  is  not  to  assert  that 
we  find  tenable  the  pretended  scepticism  of  those  who 
afiirm  that  there  is  a  complete  mental  satisfaction  of 
causality  by  determining  in  numbers  the  relations  of 
cosmic  effects.  Perhaps  this  may  satisfy  some  minds, 
but  it  cannot  satisfy  minds  privileged  with  such  intel- 
lectual development  as  to  be  able  to  reach  the  con- 
templating concept  of  a  Supreme  Cause,  although  this 
may  be  only  admitted  and  recognized  by  the  attributions 
and  relations  of  the  created,  principally  by  the  organic 
and  psychic  activities  which  are  multiplied  and  developed 
in  the  universe.  No  substantial  predicate  nor  relation 
in  space  and  time  can  be  referred  to  the  Creator,  as  we 
cannot  have  any  concept  of  perfection  more  than  the 
material  and  the  mental ;  God  is  inconceivable  as  He 
cannot  be  either  the  one  or  the  other,  and  at  the  same 
time    must   contain    the    capacity    for    both.     To    the 


38o 


CONCLUSION. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   THEORY  OF  COSMOS. 


381 


Supreme  Intelligence,  as  to  any  human  intelligence 
different  from  our  own  mind,  we  cannot  make  reference 
more  than  in  its  activity,  and  this  is  revealed  to  us  by 
the  government  of  the  whole  universal  system  through 
organic  generation. 


3 


'Ml 


SUMMARY   OF    DEFINITIONS. 


A.  Definitions  referring  to  the  "Intro- 


duction. 


I) 


Subject  in  Philosophy  (Physiology  and  Metaphysics) 
means  the  knowing  principle — ego,  mind,  or  spirit — that 
is,  the  abstract  idea  of  that  which  perceives  sensation 
and  elaborate  thought.  Subjective  or  mental  activity 
is  known  only  by  self  consciousness,  which  perceives 
differences  of  qualities,  and  not  by  the  senses,  as  it 
cannot  be  submitted  to  experimental  proof. 
•  Object  in  Philosophy  (Physiology  and  Metaphysics) 
is  the  opposite  term  to  mental  subject,  and  therefore 
means  all  sensual  things  together — 71071  ego,  77tattery  or 
7iature,  that  is,  the  abstract  idea  of  that  which  is  known 
by  experimental  data.  Objective  or  material  activity 
is  known  by  extrinsic  propagations  from  which  the 
mind  can  only  perceive  differences  of  quantity. 

Se7isatio7is  may  be  grouped  under  two  headings — 
subjective  and  objective  sensations.  Subjective  scTtsa- 
tions  are  referred  to  the  intrinsic  states  of  the  mind — 
intuitions,  which  may  be  either  emotional  or  instinctive. 
Objective  or  proper  se7isatio7is  are  referred  to  the 
extrinsic  states  of  the  material  things  which  propagate 
their  activity  or  movement  to  the  mind,  and  are  acquired 


\immimvMiMkS^imAi^^^^e^iA\ 


382 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


SUMMARY  OF  DEFINITIONS. 


383 


by   means   of    the   special   senses.      These   special    or 
objective  sensations  we  divide  into  two  kinds— immediate 

and  mediate. 

Immediate  objective  sensations  are  touch  of  pression, 
taste,  and  smell,  which,  in  order  to  be  produced,  need 
the  direct  contact  of  ponderable  matter  with  the  senses, 
it  being  worthy  of  notice  that  solids  are  the  best  to 
determine  the  sensation  of  pression,  liquids  of  taste,  and 

gases  of  smell. 

Mediate  objective  sensations  are  thermic  touch,  hearing 
and  sight,  which  are  regularly  produced  by  objects 
separated  from  the  senses,  to  which  movement  is  then 
propagated    by    means    of     imponderable    matter    or 

progene. 

Physiology  in  its  original  and  etymological  meaning 
is  the  science  of  nature,  matter,  or  object,  and  its  first 
data  are  the  special  sensations  which  constitute  our 
experience  or  sensual  observation.  This  is  the  sense 
in  which  we  employ  the  term  Physiology,  which  we 
divide  into  Abstract  and  Concrete,  subdividing  Abstract 
Physiology  into  General  and  Special. 

General  Physiology  concerns  itself  with  the  abstract 
study  of  nature,  that  is,  with  the  Physiological  Theory  of 
Cosmos,  which  does  not  treat  in  particular  of  the  know- 
ledge of  every  physical  or  physiological  change. 

B.  Concept  of  Matter. 

Conceptual  elements  are  the  abstract  terms  which 
represent  the  ultimate  analytical  notions  of  things, 
namely,  substance,  activity,  space,  and  time. 

Material  substance  is  the  conceptual  term  used  to 
represent  the  ultimate  abstraction  of  all  the  names  of 


11' 


) 


real  objects,  that  is  to  say,  the  nominal  concept  common 
to  all  things  perceived  by  the  senses  with  the  elision  of 
their  activity,  space,  and  time. 

Material  activity  (abstract  movement)  is  the  con- 
ceptual term  used  to  represent  the  ultimate  abstraction 
of  all  attributive  predicates  which  are  applied  to  real 
objects,  that  is  to  say,  the  predicative  concept  of  all 
things  perceived  by  the  senses,  with  the  elision  Of  sub- 
stance, space,  and  time. 

Space  is  the  conceptual  term  used  to  represent  the 
ultimate  abstraction  of  all  relative  predicates  regarding 
the  extension  of  real  objects  and  their  distances,  elision 
being  made  of  substance,  activity,  and  time. 

Time  is  the  conceptual  term  used  to  represent  the 
ultimate  abstraction  of  all  relative  predicates  regarding 
the  duration  of  objective  changes,  elision  being  made  of 
substance,  activity,  and  space. 

Extension  is  not  an  absolute  property  of  matter,  but 
a  quantitative  determination  of  the  space  occupied  by 
bodies  according  to  the  relative  movement  of  their  con- 
stituent elements. 

Impenetrability  is  not  a  property  of  matter  ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  reduce  bodies 
to  their  minimum  extension,  and  we  do  not  know  even 
theoretically  what  could  be  the  limit  of  penetrability  of 
bodies. 

Essence  of  matter  or  qualitative  nature  of  objects  is 
always  the  same  throughout  the  world,  as  objective 
sensation  results  from  propagation  of  movement,  and 
this  can  only  differ  in  quantitative  relations — those  of 
space  and  time. 

Force  is  not  an  abstract  or  causing  agent,  but  simply 
the  measure  of  material  activity — movement. 


384 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


SUMMARY  OF  DEFINITIONS. 


38s 


The  notion  of  material  existence  or  object  (concrete 
things  in  motion)  comprehends  the  four  elemental 
concepts :  the  two  attributive  concepts,  substance  and 
activity,  which  are  called  also  essence  or  qualitative 
nature,  and  the  two  relative  concepts,  space  and  time, 
called  also  contingencies  or  quantitative  connections. 
These  last — the  relations — are  the  only  ones  to  be  con- 
sidered in  natural  or  physiological  differences,  as  the 
qualitative  differences  depend  on  the  reaction  of  our 
mental  subject. 

Realism  is  the  erroneous  doctrine  which  admits  the 
ontological  realization  of  the  conceptual  elements  either 
separately  or  combined,  and  therefore  it  considers 
abstract  ideas  as  realities. 

Idealism  is  the  erroneous  doctrine  which  admits 
only  the  ideal  conception  of  all  things,  even  of  those 
which  are  active  substance  existing  in  space  and  changing 
with  time,  and  therefore  idealism  considers  the  concrete 
existence  of  objects  as  mere  ideas. 

Monistic  doctrines  have  as  a  fundamental  error  either 
realism  or  idealism ;  thus  materialism,  atomism,  and 
transformism  are  realistic  doctrines,  and  pure  dynamism 
is  also  in  some  measure  realistic. 

Universal  attraction  is  supposed  by  most  authors  to 
be  a  force  or  tendency  of  matter  to  approximate  the 
parts  which  are  separated  ;  but  there  is  no  possibility 
of  the  existence  of  such  a  thing  as  attraction,  and  it  is 
still  more  contrary  to  fact  to  consider  it  as  a  universal 
property. 

Physiological  change  \s  a  different  mode  in  the  manner 
of  being  of  objects,  and  so  it  is  only  a  variation  in  the 
quantitative  relation  (space  and  time)  of  matter  in 
movement. 


5        1 


,  1 


^i^»^A  ! 


Inertia  of  matter  means  that  physiological  change  is 
never  a  new  creation,  and  is  never  annihilated,  but  only 
a  variation  in  the  form  of  propagated  movement,  and 
hence  inertia  is  technically  equal  to  conservation  of 
energy  in  the  world,  which  signifies  that  in  physiological 
transformations  the  same  quantity  of  matter  in  move- 
ment is  always  preserved. 

Physiological  cause  represents  the  nominal  abstraction 
of  all  the  conditions  necessary  to  effect  any  material 
change ;  the  word  cause^  then,  in  Physiology,  has  only 
a  relative  meaning. 

C.  Ponderable  Matter. 

Mass  is  the  quantity  of  ponderable  matter  which 
bodies  contain,  and  is  determined  by  weight,  which, 
like  any  other  force,  is  a  variable  and  not  a  fixed 
relation. 

Atoms  are  the  most  minute  or  indivisible  particles 
of  ponderable  matter  which  are  identical  in  their  attri- 
butions and  density,  and  differ  from  one  another  only 
geometrically,  that  is,  in  volume  and  perhaps  in  figure. 

Atomic  weights  and  volumes  represent  the  propor- 
tional quantities  in  which  bodies  enter  into  chemical 
combinations,  but  they  do  not  represent  any  determined 
weight  and  volume  of  atoms. 

Molecule  is  the  common  term  used  to  represent  all 
the  concepts  of  invisible  particles  whether  divisible  or 
not.  Molecules,  then,  may  be  either  simple  or  com- 
pound ;  simple  or  elemental  molecules  are  the  atoms, 
and  compound  molecules  are  polyatomic  particles  in 
which  the  elements  may  be  either  incomplex  or  complex. 

Chemical  molecule  is  the  concept  of  a  particle  con- 

2  C 


386 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


SUMMARY  OF  DEFINITIONS. 


387 


taining   the   proportional   though  indefinite  number  of 
atoms  in  which  bodies  are  combined. 

D.  Progene  =  Imponderable  Matter. 

Progene  is  the  all-pervading  imponderable  matter 
which  relatively  occupies  all  space  void  of  ponderable 
matter,  and  its  density  is  about  half  that  of  atoms  (as 
fifty-four  is  to  one  hundred). 

Progene  occupies  both  interstellar  and  interstitial 
space ;  in  the  first  case  it  is  in  unbroken  continuity,  and 
in  the  second  it  is  distributed  in  very  variable  parcels 
throughout  the  porocules  of  bodies.  Interstellar  and 
interstitial  progene  are  in  constant  interchange. 

Progene  may  be  either  in  a  potential  or  phenomenal 
state,  this  difference  resulting  from  the  impressionability 
of  our  senses  to  notice  the  changes  of  its  persistent 
movement. 

Progenia  potence  results  from  the  non-manifested 
changes  of  progene  which  are  infra-  and  ultra-sonorous 
oscillations,  infra-  and  ultra-luminous  emissions,  and 
static  and  dynamic  electricity. 

Progenia  phenomena  are  the  manifested  changes  in 
which  progene  only  is  in  movement ;  this  movement 
may  be  either  oscillatory — propagation  of  sound,  or 
translatory — propagation  of  light. 

E.  Concept  of  Bodies  in  General  and  of 
Inorganic  Bodies  in  Particular. 

A  body  is  a  limited  portion  of  ponderable  matter 
containing  in  its  atomic  interstices  (porocules)  variable 
parcels  of  progene. 


fST 


Bodies  may  be  either  inorganic  (cosmic  medium)  or 
organic  (living  and  dead  matter),  or  else  mixed  bodies — 
^g^g^'^g^tes  of  inorganic  and  organic  matter  (planets). 

Inorganic  bodies  are  classified  by  their  physical  con- 
sistency and  by  their  chemical  composition  ;  by  the 
first  concept  (physical  states)  bodies  are  either  solids  or 
fluids,  and  by  the  second  (chemical  states)  they  are 
either  simple  or  compound. 

Physical  states  result  from  the  relative  proportions 
between  the  internal  energy  of  bodies  which  is  deter- 
mined by  oscillating  progene  or  heat  and  the  external 
energy  which  is  determined  by  gravity. 

Solid  states,  whether  asymmetric  or  symmetric,  result 
from  the  preponderance  of  the  external  or  gravitating 
energy  over  the  internal  or  thermic,  and 

Fluid  states,  whether  liquid  or  gaseous,  result  from 
the  preponderance  of  thermic  energy  over  gravity. 

Gas  is  the  most  simple  state  of  bodies,  because  they 
have  their  atoms  separated  from  one  another  ;  and  it  is 
the  regular  state  of  all  fluids  when  they  are  not  under 
the  pressure  of  some  other  body. 

Liquid  is  an  intermediary  state  between  gas  and 
solids,  and  results  from  the  reduction  of  gas  by  molar 
pressure  to  its  minimum  extension,  thus  equilibrating 
the  excess  of  internal  action,  and  producing  the  union 
of  atoms  two  by  two  (hydrocules). 

Symmetric  solids  or  crystals  when  fractured  show 
plain  surfaces  which  present  constant  incidences  among 
themselves,  and  therefore  they  are  constituted  by  sym- 
metric, polyhedric  particles — regular  orocules. 


388 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


F.  Concept  of  Organic  Bodies. 


SUMMARY  OF  DEFINITIONS. 


389 


Organic  bodies  are  highly  complex  structures  of 
living  matter,  and  are  also  those  structures  which, 
although  dead,  still  preserve  the  morphologic  appear- 
ances which  they  showed  during  life. 

Characters  of  organic  ^natter  there  are  none  but  the 
manner  of  being  engendered,  and  therefore  we  practi- 
cally recognize  this  only  because  we  cannot  fluidify 
organic  matter  without  destroying  its  structure,  which 
cannot  be  reconstructed  by  any  industrial  means,  not 
even  by  chemical  combination. 

All  definite  compounds,  even  those  complex  com- 
pounds of  carbon  which  can  undergo  either  fluidification 
or  decomposition,  and  which  in  either  case  can  be  recon- 
structed by  industrial  means,  must  also  be  called  inor- 
cranic  bodies  like  those  included  at  present  in  works  on 
Inorganic  Chemistry. 

Protoplasm  is  the  simplest  organic  matter  of  granular, 
homogeneous,  and  semi-solid  appearance,  from  which  all 
the  other  organic  forms,  as  nuclei,  membranes,  and  fibres 

are  derived. 

Vitality  is  the  synthesis  of  all  the  functional  changes 

which  are  operated  in  living  bodies. 

All  functions  after  an  ultimate  analysis  are  nothing 
but  material  changes  like  those  observed  in  the  inor- 
ganic world,  and  they  may  be  classified  as  potential  and 

phenomenal. 

Potential  functions  are  changes  not  manifested  to 
the  senses ;  they  are  only  inferred  by  reason,  which  sees 
the  necessity  of  admitting  some  progenic  movements  in 
living  bodies,  in  order  to  determine  their  acts  of  proto- 
genition,  biotension,  and  innervation. 


I 


«'fe*-. 


¥ 


I 


Protogenition  is  the  progenic  movement  necessary  for 
the  changes  of  collocation  of  ponderable  matter  in  the 
acts  of  organic  generation — nutrition  and  reproduction. 

Biotension  is  the  static  progene  which  is  confined  in 
the  organized  particles,  and  which  is  manifested  under 
different  forms,  principally  by  heat  in  the  decomposition 
of  organic  matter,  and  by  visible  movements  in  muscular 
contractions. 

Innervation  is  a  confined  current  of  progene  running 
through  the  nerves,  and  hence  is  but  electricity  propa- 
gated through  living  conductors. 

Phenomenal  functions  are  manifested  changes  which 
may  be  either  partial  movements  of  invisible  particles — 
nutrition,  or  total  movements  of  visible  parts — repro- 
duction and  contraction. 

Nutrition  or  trophic  function — assimilation  and  dis- 
assimilation  —  is  a  complex  molecular  movement  or 
thermochemical  phenomenon,  and  consists  in  endo- 
thermic  metamorphoses  or  reductions  and  exothermic 
metamorphoses  or  oxidations.  The  thermochemic 
changes  of  reduction  predominate  in  green  vegetation, 
and  those  of  oxidation  in  animal  life. 

Reproduction  is  the  total  movement  of  a  visible 
organized  particle  which  is  separated  by  self-excision 
in  order  to  take  on  an  individual  existence  like  its 
parents  or  other  ancestors. 

Contraction  or  contractility  is  also  a  visible  move- 
ment, but  a  returned  one,  in  which  protoplasm  in 
general,  principally  the  muscular,  is  alternately  reduced 
and  relaxed. 

Cellule  is  the  common  concept  of  all  organized, 
visible  particles,  elision  being  made  of  their  anatomic 
forms   and   peculiar   functions ;    so   that   the   elements 


ffi' 


390 


GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY. 


which  have  acquired  the  most  complex  development  are 
imaginarily  deprived  of  their  derived  parts  as  nuclei, 
membranes,  and  fibres,  and  also  imaginarily  deprived  of 
all  living  functions  except  nutrition,  which  is  the  primary 
and  sole  manifestation  common  to  all  living  bodies. 

[Although  reproduction  is,  like  nutrition,  a  manifestation  common  to 
vegetable  and  animal  species,  it  is  not  a  function  of  all  organisms,  many 
being  sterile.] 

Irritability  z.s>  the  cause  of  living  functions  or  cellular 
activity  is  an  inadmissible  agent,  and,  as  an  effect, 
would  be  an  improper  denomination  for  vitality,  and 
therefore  it  must  be  omitted  from  scientific  terminology. 

G.  Concept  of  Planetary  Bodies. 

Planets  are  bodies  constituted  of  organic  and  inor- 
ganic matter.  Living  organic  matter  is  the  proximate 
agent  of  planetary  movements,  for  which  non-living 
bodies  are  only  the  cosmic  medium. 

The  sun  is  not  a  body  in  combustion  ;  it  is  princi- 
pally a  great  reflecting  mass,  which,  situated  in  the 
focus  of  the  orbits  of  many  planets,  reflects  their  infra- 
luminous  emissions,  these  producing  light  by  their  con- 
glomeration. 

The  rotatory  movement  of  the  sun  is  accomplished  in 
twenty-six  days,  therefore  there  must  also  be  some 
living  matter  in  the  sun. 

Natural  light  or  daylight  is  a  photothermic  radiation 
produced  by  transference,  not  only  of  the  radiating 
motion  of  the  planets,  but  also  of  the  motion  engendered 
by  solar  living  beings. 

The  sun  principally  differs  from  the  planets  in  that 
having  but  one  and  relatively  small  continent  it  cannot 
sensibly  come  into  any  orbital  revolution. 


i\ 


I 


P  V  *         ,^    V 


SUMMARY  OF  DEFINITIONS, 


391 


Satellites  must  also  be  constituted  of  organic  and 
inorganic  bodies,  and  they  revolve  towards  the  planets 
because  the  progenic  energy  which  they  receive  from 
their  corresponding  planets  is  greater  (on  account  of 
their  proximity)  than  that  which  they  receive  from  the 
sun. 

H.  Comprehensive  Concept  of  the  Universe. 

The  universe  is  not  only  an  aggregate  of  all  the 
planetary  systems,  but  there  is  besides  some  cause 
apart  from  matter  acting  as  its  governor  or  Prime  Motor. 

Periodicity  of  phenomena  or  manifested  energy  in 
the  universe  results  from  the  alternating  increase  and 
diminution  of  the  intrinsic  and  extrinsic  changes  of 
organism  ;  vitality  thus  being  the  primordial  effect  of 
the  Supreme  Motor. 

Cosmogony — the  science  of  the  formation  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  of  the  cause  of  the  conservation  of  the  world 
in  its  actual  state — is  not  a  physiological  doctrine ;  it  is 
a  matter  of  pure  belief  which  is  beyond  any  experi- 
mental proof,  and  therefore  it  enters  into  the  province 
of  Theology — a  metaphysical  science. 


PRINTED    BY   WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND   SONS,    LIMITED,    LONDON  AND   BECCLBS. 


A  LIST  OF 

KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.'S 

(Limited) 

PUB  Lie  A  TIONS. 


7.90. 


57  and  59,  Ltidgate  Hill;  and  i,  Paternoster  Square, 

London, 

■    A  LIST   OF 

KEGAN   PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.'S 

(Limited) 

PUBLICATIONS. 


-M- 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
2 

31 


General  Literature. 
Theology  and  Philosophy. 
English  and  Foreign  Philo- 
sophical Library         .    42 
Science         ...»    44 
International    Scientific 

Series    .        .        .        .48 
Oriental,  Egyptian,  etc..     52 


PAGE 

Trubner's  Oriental  Series  68 
Military  Works.  .  .  72 
Educational        .        .        .73 

Poetry 80 

Novels  and  Tales  .  .  84 
Books  for  the  Young  .  87 
Periodicals  .        .        .        .88 


GENERAL  LITERATURE. 

Actors,   Eminent.      Edited  by  William    Archer.      Crown  Svo, 
2s.  6d.  each. 
1.  ^William  Charles  Macready.    By  William  Archer. 

IL  Thomas  Betterton.    By.  R.  W.  Lowe. 

ADAMS,  W.  H.  Davenport.— TYie  ^White  King  ;  or,  Charles  the 
First,  and  Men  and  Women,  Life  and  Manners,  etc.,  in  the  l<irst 
Half  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.     2  vols.     Demy  Svo,  2IJ. 

AGASSIZ,  Louis.— Kn  Essay  on  Classification.    Svo,  12s. 

ALLIBONE  S.  A.— A  Critical  Dictionary  of  English  Litera- 
ture and  British  and  American  Authors.  From  the 
Earliest  Accounts  to  the  latter  half  of  the  Nineteenth  Centur>'. 
3  vols.     Royal  Svo,  ;i^5  Ss. 

Amateur  Mechanic's  Workshop  (The).  A  Treatise  containing 
Plain  and  Concise  Directions  for  the  Manipulation  of  Wood  and 
Metals.  By  the  Author  of  "  The  Lathe  and  its  Uses.  Sixth 
Edition.     Numerous  Woodcuts.     Demy  Svo,  6s. 

American  Almanac  and  Treasury  of  Facts,  Statistical, 
Financial,  and  Political.  Edited  by  Ainswortii  R. 
Spofford.     Published  Yearly.     Crown  Svo,  yx.  6d.  each. 


Kegan  Paul^  Trench^  Triibner  &  Co.^s  Publications.      3 


AMOS,  Professor  Sheldon. — The  History  and  Principles  of  the 
Civil  Law  of  Rome.  An  aid  to  the  Study  of  Scientific  and 
Comparative  Jurisprudence.     Demy  Svo,  \6s. 

ANDERSON,  William. — Practical  Mercantile  Correspond- 
ence. A  Collection  of  Modern  Letters  of  Business,  with  Notes, 
Critical  and  Explanatory,  and  an  Appendix.  Thirtieth  Edition. 
Crown  Svo,  3^.  dd, 

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Shakespeare,  and  other  Lectures.     Edited  by  George  Si . 

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Emerson's  (Ralph  ^Waldo)  Life.  By  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 
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NEWMAN,  Car^ma/.-Characteristics  from  the  Writings  of. 

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The  Debatable  Land  between  this  World  and  the  Next. 
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Sartor  Resartus.     By  Thomas  Carlyle. 

The  Poetical  Works  of  John  Milton.     2  vols. 

Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales.  Edited  by  A.  W.  Pollard, 
2  vols. 

Letters  and  Journals  of  Jonathan  Swift.  Selected  and 
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De  Quincey's  Confessions  of  an  English  Opium  Eater. 
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The  Gospel  according  to  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke. 

Selections  from  the  Prose  Writings  of  Jonathan  Sw^ift. 

With  a    Preface  and    Notes    by    Stanley    Lane- Poole   and 
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22 


A  List  of 


% 


SeTectlons   from   Milton's   Prose   Writings.    EdUed   by 

Ernest  Myers. 
The  Book  of  Psalms.    Translated  by  the  Rev.  Canon  T.  K. 

Cheyne,  M.A.,  D.D. 
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DOBSON. 

English  Comic  Dramatists.    Edited  by  Oswald  Crawfurd. 

English  Lyrics. 

The  Sonnets  of  John  Milton.     Edited  by  Mark  Pattison. 

With  Portrait  after  Vertue. 
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BURY.     With  a  Miniature  Frontispiece  designed  and  etched  by 

H.  G.  Glindoni. 
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and  an  E^hed  Portrait  from  an  unfinished  Oil  Sketch  by  Sir 

Godfrey  Kneller. 
Select  Letters  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley.    Edited,  with  an 

Introduction,  by  Richard  Garnett. 
T>iA  rhristian  Year.     Thoughts  in  Verse  for  the  Sundays  and 
"^    How  Day   W^^^^  the  vSr.     With  Miniature  Portrait  of  the 

Revf  J.  KeWe,  after  a  Drawing  by  G.  Richmond,  R.A. 
Shakspere's  VSTorks.     Complete  in  Twelve  Volumes. 
Eighteenth  Century  Essays.    Selected  and  Edited  by  Austin 

DOBSON.     With  a  Miniature  Frontispiece  by  R.  Caldecott. 

O  Horati  Flacci  Opera.    Edited  by  F.  A.  Cornish,  Assistant 
^'  ™r  at  Ron.     With  a  Frontispiece  after  a  design  by  L.  Alma 
Tadema,  etched  by  Leopold  Lowenstam. 

Edffar  Allan  Pec's  Poems.    With  an  Essay  on  his  Poetry  by 
ANDREW  LANG,  and  a  Frontispiece  by  Linley  Samboume. 

<;>iak«;T5ere's  Sonnets.    Edited  by  Edward  Dowden.    With  a 
^    St^eL  etc^^^  by  Leopold' Lowenstam,   after  the  Death 

Mask. 
English   Odes.    Selected  by  Edmund  Gosse     With  Frontis- 

piece  on  India  paper  by  Hamo  Thomycroft,  A.R.A. 
Of  the  Imitation  of  Christ.     By  Thomas  X  Kempis.     A 

revised  translation.     With  Frontispiece  on  India  paper,  from  a 

Design  by  W.  B.  Richmond. 
Poems :  Selected  from  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley.    Dedicated  to 

Lady  Shelley.     With  a  Preface  by  Richard  Garnett  and  a 
•  Miniature  Frontispiece. 


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Second  Edition.     2  vols.     Demy  8vo,  ^s.  6d. 
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Paul  of  Tarsus.     By  the  Author  of  "  Rabbi  Jeshua."     Crown  8vo, 

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researches  (Glottologia  Aria  Recentissima).     Translated  by  E.  S. 

Roberts.     Crown  8vo,  6s. 
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Relation  to  Health  and   Physical   Development  of  the  Higher 

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8V0,  2IJ. 

Philological   Society,   Transactions  of.      Published   irregularly. 

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J,  D.  Lewis.     Post  8vo,  5^. 

PLUMPTRE,  Charles  y^/m.— King's  College  Lectures  on  Elocu- 
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POOLE,  W.  /'.—An  Index  to  Periodical  Literature.  Third 
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24 


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RAVENSTEm,  E.  G.,  and  HULLEY,  y^/^«.—The  Gymnasiuna 

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READEy  PVhnvood.—The  Martyrdom  of  Man.   Thirteenth  Edition. 

8vo,  Js.  6d. 
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\ 


I 


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History  of  Drink.     A  Review,  Social,  Scientific,  and  Political. 

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[/«  preparation^ 


26 


A  List  of 


SHAKESPEARE— continued.  '. 

A  New  Study  of  Shakespeare.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Con- 
nection of  the  Plays  and  Poems,  with  the  Origins  of  the  Classical 
Drama,  and  with  the  Platonic  Philosophy,  through  the  Mysteries. 
Demy  8vo,  los.  6d. 

Shakespeare's  Gymbeline.  Edited,  with  Notes,  by  C.  M. 
Ingleby.     Crown  8vo,  is.  6d. 

A  New  Variorum  Kdition  of  Shakespeare.  Edited  by 
Horace  Howard  Furness.  Royal  8vo.  Vol.  I.  Romeo  and 
Juliet.  iSs.  Vol.  II.  Macbeth.  iSs.  Vols.  III.  and  IV. 
Hamlet.  2  vols.  36J.  Vol.  V.  King  Lear.  iSs.  Vol.  VI. 
Othello.     iSs. 

Shakspere  Society  (The  New).— Subscription,  one  guinea  per 
annum.     List  of  Publications  on  application. 

SHELLEY,   Percy  Bysshe.—'Life.      By  Edward    Dowden,   LL.D. 
2  vols.     With  Portraits.     Demy  Svo,  36^. 

SIB  REE,  James,  ytm.-^\v^  Great  African  Island.     Chapters  on 
Madagascar.     A  Popular  Account  of  the  Physical  Geography, 
etc.,  of  the  Country.     With  Physical  and  Ethnological  Maps  and 
4  Illustrations.     Svo,  \Qs.  6d. 

SIGERSON,   George,  .1/.Z>. -Political  Prisoners  at   Home  and 
Abroad.     With  Appendix  on  Dietaries.     Crown  8vo,  2J.  ba. 

SIMCOX,  £^tM.— Episodes  in  the  Lives  of  Men,  Women, 
and  luovers.     Crown  Svo,  *js.  6d. 

SINCLAIR,   T/iomas.—KssRys  I    in   Three    Kinds.      Crown  Svo, 

is.  6d.  ;  wrappers,  is. 
Sinclairs  of  England  (The).     Crown  Svo,  12s. 
SINNETT,  A.  P.— The  Occult  World.     Fourth  Edition.     Crown 

Svo,  3^.  6</. 
Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Madame  Blavatsky.     Demy  Svo, 

lOJ.  ^d. 

Skinner,  James  :  A  Memoir.    By  the  Author  of  "Charles  Lowder." 
With  a   Preface  by   the   Rev.   Canon    Carter,   and    Portrait. 
Large  crown,  7^.  dd. 
*^  Also  a  cheap  Edition.    With  Portrait.    Fourth  Edition.    Crown 
Svo,  3^.  (id. 

SMITH,  Huntington.— K  Century  of  American  Literature: 
Benjamin  Franklin  to  James  Russell  Lowell.  Crown 
Svo,  ds. 

SMITH,  S. The  Divine   Government.     Fifth  Edition.     Crown 

Svo,  df. 


Kegan  Pauly  Trench,  Trubfier  &  Co^s  Publications.    27 

SMYTH,  R.  Brough.— i:\ie  Aborigines  of  Victoria.  Compiled 
for  the  Government  of  Victoria.  With  Maps,  Plates,  and  Wood- 
cuts.    2  vols.     Royal  Svo,  £z  Z^- 

Sophocles  ;  The  Seven  Plays  in  English  Verse.  Translated  by  Lewis 
Campbell.    Crown  Svo,  7^.  6c/. 

Specimens  of  English  Prose  Style  from  Malory  to  Ma- 
caulay.  Selected  and  Annotated,  with  an  Introductory  Essay, 
by  George  Saintsbury.  Large  crown  Svo,  printed  on  hand- 
made paper,  parchment  antique  or  cloth,  I2s. ;  vellum,  i$s. 

SPED  DING,  James.— The  Life  and  Times  of  Francis  Bacon, 
2  vols.     Post  Svo,  21S. 

Spinoza,  Benedict  de  :  His  Life,  Correspondence,  and  Ethics.  By 
R.  Willis,  M.D.    Svo,  2ij. 

SPRAGUE,  C4ar/<?j.£'.— Handbook  of  Volapiik  :  The  International 
Language.     Second  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  ^s. 

ST,  HILL,  Katharine.— TYie  Grammar  of  Palmistry.  With 
iS  Illustrations.     l2mo,  is. 

STOKES,  WJiitley.—Goidelica. :  Old  and  Early-Middle  Irish  Glosses. 
Prose  and  Verse.     Second  Edition.    Med.  Svo,  iSj. 

STRACHEY,  Sir  John,  G.C.S.I.—lndidL.   With  Map.    Demy  Svo,  15 j. 

STREET,  y.  C. — The  Hidden  ^Way  across  the  Threshold  ;  or, 

The  Mystery  which  hath  been  hidden  for  Ages  and_from  Genera- 
tions.    With  Plates.     Large  Svo,  15^. 

SUMNER,  W.  a— 'What  Social  Classes  owe  to  Each  Other. 
iSmo,  3J.  6d. 

SWINBURNE,  Algernon  Charles.  — K  ^Word  for  the  Navy. 
Imperial  i6mo,  $s. 

The  Bibliography  of  Swinburne,  1857-1887.    Crown  Svo, 
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12S. 

TAYLER,  J.  y.—K  Retrospect  of  the  Religious  Life  of 
England  ;  or,  Church,  Puritanism,  and  Free  Inquiiy.  Second 
Edition.     Post  Svo,  7^.  6d. 

TA  YLOR,  Rev.  Canon  Isaac,  LL.D. — The  Alphabet.  An  Account  of 
the  Origla  and  Development  of  Letters.  With  numerous  Tables 
and  Facsimiles.     2  vols.     Demy  Svo,  36J'. 

Leaves  from  an  Egyptian  Note-book.    CrowTi  Svo,  $s. 

TA  YLOR,  Sir  Henry. — The  Statesman.     Fcap.  Svo,  y.  6d. 
Taylor,  Reynell,  C.B.,  G.S.I.  :  A  Biography.    By  E.  Gambier 
Parry.     With  Portait  and  Map.     Demy  Svo,  14?. 


28 


A  List  of 


Technological  Dictionary  of  the  Terms  employed  m  the  Arts  and 

^^""^      Scfenccs  ;  Architecture  ;  Engineering  ;  Mechamcs  ;  Shipbuildmg 

and  Navigation;  Metallurgy ;  Mathematics,  etc.   Second  Edition. 

3  vols.     8vo. 
Vol.  I.     German-English-French.     I2s. 
Vol.  II.     English-German-French.     I2s. 
Vol.  III.     French-German-English.     15J. 
THACKERAY,  Rev.  S,   W.,   LL.D—TYie  Land  and  the  Com- 
munity.    Crown  8vo,  y.  6d. 
THACKERAY,  William  Makepeace. -Krv^ss^y  on  the  Genius  of 
George  Cruikshank.     Reprinted  verbatim  from  the  West^ 
minsUr  Review,     40  Illustrations.     Large  paper  Edition.     Royal 
8vo,  *js.  6d. 
Sultan  Stork  ;    and  other  Stories  and  Sketches.      1829- 1844. 
Now  First  Collected.     To  which  is  added  the  Bibliography  of 
Thackeray,  Revised  and  Considerably  Enlarged.      Large  demy 
8vo,  I  Of.  (>d. 
THOMPSON,  SirH.-T^\^\.  in  Relation  to  Age  and  Activity. 
Fcap.  8vo,  cloth,  \s.  6d.  ;  paper  covers,  is. 
Modern  Cremation.     Crown  8vo,  2s.  6d. 
Tobacco  Talk  and  Smokers'  Gossip.     i6mo,  2s. 
TRANT  William.-rrade  Unions:  Their  Origin,  Objects,  and 

KfTicacy.     Small  crown  8vo,  is.  6d.  ;  paper  covers,  i^. 
TPPNCH   The  late  R.  C,  Archbishop.— t^^W.^^^  and  Meinorials. 
TRENCH^  the  Authoi   of'  «  Charles  Lowder."      With  two   Portraits. 

2  vols.     8vo,  21S, 
A    Household    Book    of    English    Poetry.     Selected  and 
^ranged    with  Notes.     Fourth  Edition,  Revised.     Extra  fcap. 

An  Essav  on  the  Life  and  Genius  of  Calderon.    With 

""^fanslaLns^om  his  "  Life's  a  Dream ''  and  '^Great  Theatre  of 

the  World."     Second  Edition,   Revised  and  Improved.     Extra 

fcap.  8vo,  5^.  6^.  ,        -r      X 

Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germany,  and  other  Lectures 

on^hl  TMrty  Years'  War.     Third  Edition,   Enlarged. 

Fcap.  8vo,  4r.  o         j 

Plutarch :  his  Life,  his  Lives,  and  his  Morals.    Second 

Edition,  Enlarged.     Fcap.  8vo,  3^.  dd.  .       ^  , 

Remains  of  the  late  Mrs.  Richard  Trench.  Being  Selec 
Sns  from  her  Journals,  Letters,  and  other  Papers.  New  and 
Cheaper  Issue.     With  Portrait.    8vo,  bs.  ^     ^  , 

Lectures  on  Mediaeval  Church  History.  Being  the  Sub- 
stance of  Lectures  delivered  at  Queen's  College,  London.  Second 
Edition.    8vo,  I2J. 


4i' 


•  .^'■- 


r 


I 


Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  Co.'s  Publications.    29 

TRENCH,  The  late  R.  C,  Archbishop— continued. 

English,  Past  and  Present.     Thirteenth  Edition,  Revised  and 

Improved.     Fcap.  8vo,  Ss. 
On    the    Study    of    'Words.      Twentieth    Edition,    Revised. 

Fcap.  8vOj  5^. 
Select  Glossary  of   English  'Words  used  Formerly  in 

Senses  Different  from  the  Present.     Seventh  Edition, 

Revised  and  Enlarged.     Fcap.  8vo,  5^. 
Proverbs  and   Their   Lessons.     Seventh  Edition,  Enlarged. 

Fcap.  8vo,  45'. 

TRIMEN,  i?^/^;;^.— South- African  Butterflies.  A  Monograph  of 
the  Extra-Tropical  Species.  With  12  Coloured  Plates.  3  vols. 
Demy  8vo,  £2  125.  6d. 

Trubner's  Bibliographical  Guide  to  American  Literature. 
A  Classed  List  of  Books  published  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  from  1817  to  1857.  Edited  by  NicOLAS  Trliiner. 
8vo,  half-bound,  i8j. 

TRUMBULL,  H.  Clay.— T\iQ  Blood-Covenant,  a  Primitive 
Rite,  and  its  Bearings  on  Scripture.     Post  8vo,  'js.  6d. 

TURNER,  Charles  Edward.— CownX  Tolstoi',  as  Novelist  and  Thinker. 

Lectures  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution.     Crown  8vo,  3^.  6d. 
The  Modern  Novelists  of  Russia.     Lectures  delivered  at 

the  Taylor  Institution,  Oxford.     Crown  8vo,  3^.  6d. 
TWEEDIE,  Mrs.  Akc.—^\i^  Ober-Ammergau  Passion  Play, 

1890.     Small  crown  8vo,  2s.  6d. 
VAUGHAN,   H.    //.  —  British    Reason    in    English    Rhyme. 

Crown  8vo,  6j-. 
VESCELLUSSHELDON,  Louise.— Kn  I.  D.  B.  in  South  Africa. 

Illustrated  by  G.  E.  Graves  and  Al.  Hencke.     Crown  8vo, 

7j.  6d. 
Yankee  Girls  in  Zulu-Land.     Illustrated  by  G.  E.  Graves. 

Crown  8vo,  $s. 
Victoria  Government,  Publications  of  the.   [List  in  preparation. 

VINCENT,    Franh.  —  Around    and    about    South    America. 

Twenty  Months  of  Quest  and  Query.     With  Maps,  Plans,  and 

54  Illustrations.     Medium  8vo,  21s. 

WAITE,  A.  ^.— Lives  of  Alchemystical  Philosophers.     Demy 

8vo,  loj.  6d. 

The  Magical  Writings  of  Thomas  Vaughan.     Small  4to, 

I  or.  6d. 
The  Real  History  of  the  Rosicrucians.    With  Illustrations. 
Crown  8vo,  'js.  dd. 


30 


A  List  of 


WAITE,  A.  E.— continued. 

The  Mysteries  of  Magic.     A  Digest  of  the  Writings  of  Eliphas^ 
Levi.     With  Illustrations.     Demy  8vo,  lew.  6d. 

IVAKEy  C.  Staniland.—Sev^enX'VJ ovshi^,  and  other  Essays, 
'With  a  Chapter  on  Totemism.    Demy  8vo,  loj.  6d, 

The  Development  of  ^Marriage  and    Kinship.      Demy 
8vo,  i8j-. 

^yy^ales.— Through  North  "Wales  ^with  a  Knapsack.  By  Four 
Schoolmistresses.    With  a  Sketch  Map.    Small  crown  Svo,  2s,  6d. 

WALL,  George.— i:YiQ  Natural  History  of  Thought  in  its 
Practical  Aspect,  from  its  Origin  in  Infancy.  Demy 
Svo,  I2s.  6d. 

WALLACE,  Alfred  Russel.—On  Miracles  and  Modern  Spirit- 
ualism.    Second  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  ^s. 

WALPOLE,  Chas.  George.— K  Short  History  of  Ireland  from  the 
Earliest  Times  to  the  Union  with  Great  Britain. 
With  5  Maps  and  Appendices.     Third  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  6s, 

WALTERS,  y,  Cuming.— In  Tennyson  Land.  Being  a  Brief 
Account  of  the  Home  and  Early  Surroundings  of  the  Poet- 
Laureate.     With  Illustrations.     Demy  Svo,  5j. 

WARTER,  J,  W,—Ktl  Old  Shropshire  Oak.  2  vols.  Demy  Svo,. 
28^. 

WATSON,  R.  (9.— Spanish  and  Portuguese  South  America 
during  the  Colonial  Period.    2  vols.     Post  Svo,  21J. 

WEDGWOOD,   H.^h.    Dictionary  of    English    Etymology. 
Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.     With  Introduction  on 
the  Origin  of  Language.     Svo,  £\  \s. 
Contested  Etymologies  in  the  Dictionary  of  the  Rev. 
"W.  ^W.  Skeat.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 

WEDGWOOD,  Julia.— Tlcie  Moral  Ideal.  An  Historic  Study. 
Second  Edition.     Demy  Svo,  qj. 

WE/SBACir,  fuHus.—T'h.eoTeXicsLl  Mechanics.  A  Manual  of  the 
Mechanics  of  Engineering.  Designed  as  a  Text-book  for  Technical 
Schools,  and  for  the  Use  of  Engineers.  Translated  from  the 
German  by  Eckley  B.  Coxe.  With  902  Woodcuts.  Demy 
Svo,  31^".  6d. 

WESTROPP,  Hoddei'  ^.—Primitive  Symbolism  as  Illustrated 
in  Phallic  "Worship  ;  or,  The  Reproductive  Principle.  With 
an  Introduction  by  Major-Gen.  Forlong.  Demy  Svo,  parch- 
ment, 7^.  dd. 

WHEELDON,  J.  P.  —  Angling  Resorts  near  London.  The 
Thames  and  the  Lea.     Crown  Svo,  pap^r,  \s.  (>d. 


Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  CoJs  Publicatio?is.     31 

WIIIBLEY,  Chas.— In  Cap  and  Gown  :  Three  Centuries  of  Cam- 
bridge Wit.     Crown  Svo,  ^s.  6d. 

WHITMAN,  Sidney.— Im^evisil  Germany.  A  Critical  Study  of  Fact 
and  Character.     Crown  Svo,  "js.  6d. 

WIGSTON,  W.  F.  C— Hermes  Stella  ;  or.  Notes  and  Jottings  on 
the  Bacon  Cipher.     Svo,  6^. 

"Wilberforce,  Bishop,  of  Oxfo7-d  and  Winchester,  Life.  By  his 
Son  Reginald  Wilberforce.     Crown  Svo,  6j. 

WILDRIDGE,  T.  Tyndall.— i:\iQ  Dance  of  Death,  in  Painting 
and  in  Print.  With  Woodcuts.  4to,  3^.  6d;  the  Woodcuts 
coloured  by  hand,  <^s. 

WOLTMANN,  Dr.  Alfred,  and  WOERMANN,  Dr.  Aar/.— History 
of  Painting.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Medium  Svo. 
Vol.  I.  Painting  in  Antiquity  and  the  Middle  Ages.  28^.'; 
bevelled  boards,  gilt  leaves,  30J.  Vol.  II.  The  Painting  of  the 
Renascence.     42$-.  ;  bevelled  boards,  gilt  leaves,  45J. 

WOOD,  M.  W. — Dictionary  of  Volapiik.  VolapUk-English  and 
English- Volapiik.     Volapiikatidel  c  cif.     Crown  Svo,  \os.  6d. 

WORTHY,  Charles.— l?ra.cUcal  Heraldry ;  or.  An  Epitome  of 
English  Armory.     124  Illustrations.     Crown  Svo,  "js.  6d, 

WRIGHT,  Thomas.— The  Homes  of  Other  Days.  A  History 
of  Domestic  Manners  and  Sentiments  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
With  Illustrations  from  the  Illuminations  in  Coirtempwrary  Manu- 
scripts and  other  Sources.  Drawn  and  Engraved  by  F.  W. 
Fairholt,  F.S.A.     350  Woodcuts.     Medium  Svo,  21s. 

Anglo-Saxon  and  Old  English  Vocabularies.  Second 
Edition.  Edited  by  Richard  Paul  Wulcker.  2  vols.  Demy 
Svo,  28J. 

The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon.  A  History  of  the 
Early  Inhabitants  of  Britain  down  to  the  Conversion  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  to  Christianity.  Illustrated  by  the  Ancient  Remains 
brought  to  light  by  Recent  Research.  Corrected  and  Enlarged 
Edition.     With  nearly  300  Engravings.     Crown  Svo,  gs. 

YELVERTON,  Christopher.— Oneivos  \  or.  Some  Questions  of  the 
Day.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 


THEOLOGY    AND    PHILOSOPHY. 

ALEXANDER,  William,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Derry.-TYie  Great  Ques- 
tion, and  other  Sermons.     Crown  Svo,  6^. 

AMBERLEY,    Viscount.— An    Analysis    of   Religious    Belief. 
2  vols.     Demy  Svo,  30j-. 


S2 


A  List  of 


Antiqua  Mater :  A  Study  of  Christian  Origins.     Crown  8vo, 

BELANY,  Rev.  7?.— The  Bible  and  the  Papacy.     Crown  8vo,  2s, 
BENTHAM,    %rm;/.— Theory  of  Legislation.     Translated  from 

the  French  of  Etienne  Dumont  by  K.  Hildreth.    Fifth  Edition. 

Post  8vo,  *]s.  6d. 

BEST,  George  /'oyw^.— Morality  and  Utility.  A  Natural  Science 
of  Ethics.     Crown  SvOj  ^s. 

BROOKE,  Rev.  Stopford  .4.— The  Fight  of  Faith.  Sermons  preached 
on  various  occasions.     Fifth  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  7j.  dd. 

The  Spirit  of  the  Christian  Life.  Third  Edition.  Cro\\ii 
Svo,  5^. 

Theology  in  the  Knglish  Poets.  Cowpcr,  Coleridge,  Words- 
worth, and  Burns.     Sixth  Edition.     Post  Svo,  5^. 

Christ  in  Modern  Life.     Seventeenth  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  5j. 

Sermons.     First  Series.    Thirteenth  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 

Sermons.     Second  Series.     Sixth  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 

BROWN,   Rev.  J.  Baldwin.— Tlie  Higher  Life.     Its  Reality,   Ex- 
perience, and  Destiny.     Seventh  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 
Doctrine  of  Annihilation  in  the  Light  of  the  Gospel  of 
Love.     Five  Discourses.     Fourth  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  2s.  6d, 

The  Christian  Policy  of  Life.    A  Book  for  Young  Men  of 
Business.     Third  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  3^.  6d. 

BUNSEN,  Ernest  de.— Islam  \  or.  True  Christianity.     Crown  Svo,  5s. 
Catholic  Dictionary.      Containing  some  Account  of  the  Doctrine, 

Discipline,  Rites,  Ceremonies,  Councils,  and  Religious  Orders  of 

the  Catholic  Church.    Edited  by  Thomas  Arnold,  M.  A.    Third 

Edition.     Demy  Svo,  2IJ. 
■CHEYNE,  Canon.— The  Prophecies  of  Isaiah.    Translated  with 

Critical  Notes  and  Dissertations.     2  vols.     Fifth  Edition.     Demy 

Svo,  25J. 
Job  and  Solomon  ;   or.  The  Wisdom  of  the  Old   Testament. 

Demy  Svo,  12s.  6d. 
The  Psalms  ;   or,   Book  of  The    Praises  of  Israel.      Translated 

with  Commentary.     Demy  Svo.     i6s. 
CLARKE,  James  7^;Yw/a;/.— Ten '.Great   Religions.     An  Essay  in 

Comparative  Theology.     Demy  Svo,  \cs.  6d. 
Ten  Great  Religions.    Part  II.    A  Comparison  of  all  Religions. 

Demy  Svo,  lor.  6d. 
'COKE,   Henry.— Greeds    of    the    Day ;    or.    Collated    Opinions  of 

Reputable  Thinkers.     2  vols.     Demy  Svo,  21s, 


Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  Go's  Publications,    33 

COMTE,  Augusfe.— The  Catechism  of  Positive  Religion.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  Richard  Congreve.  Second  Edition. 
Crown  Svo,  2s.  6d. 

The  Eight  Circulars  of  Auguste  Comte.  Translated  from 
the  French.     Fcap.  Svo,  is.  6d. 

Appeal  to  Conservatives.    Crown  Svo,  2s.  6d. 

The  Positive  Philosophy  of  Auguste  Comte.  Translated 
and  condensed  by  Harriet  Martineau.  2  vols.  Second 
Edition.    Svo,  25J. 

CONIVAY,  Moncure  D.—The  Sacred  Anthology.  A  Book  of 
Ethnical  Scriptures.  Edited  by  MoNCURE  D.  CoNWAY.  New 
Edition.     Crown  Svo,  ^s. 

Idols  and  Ideals.  With  an  Essay  on  Christianity.  Crown 
Svo,  4^. 

COX,  Rev.  Samuel,  D.D. — A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job. 
With  a  Translation.     Second  Edition.     Demy  Svo,  15^. 

Salvator  Mundi ;  or.  Is  Christ  the  Saviour  of  all  Men?  Twelfth 
Edition.     Crown  Svo,  2s.  6d. 

The  Larger  Hope.  A  Sequel  to  "Salvator  Mundi."  Second 
Edition.      l6mo,  i^. 

The  Genesis  of  Evil,  and  other  Sermons,  mainly  expository. 
Third  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  6s. 

Balaam.    An  Exposition  and  a  Study.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 

Miracles.     An  Argument  and  a  Challenge.     Crown  Svo,  2s.  6d, 

CRANBROOK,  James.— Cxed\h\\\dL.  \  or,  Discourses  on  Questions  of 
Christian  Faith.     Post  Svo,  3^.  dd. 

The  Founders  of  Christianity ',  or,  Discourses  upon  the 
Origin  of  the  Christian  Religion.     Post  Svo,  6j. 

DAWSON,  Geo.,  ^.^4.— Prayers,  with  a  Discourse  on  Prayer. 
Edited  by  his  Wife.  First  Series.  Tenth  Edition.  Small  Crown 
Svo,  31.  dd. 

Prayers,  with  a  Discourse  on  Prayer.  Edited  by  George 
St.  Clair,  F.G.S.     Second  Series.     Small  Crown  Svo,  3J-.  dd. 

Sermons  on  Disputed  Points  and  Special  Occasions. 
Edited  by  his  Wife.     Fourth  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  ^s.  6d. 

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BHIir'' 


34 


A  List  of 


DELEPIERRE,  Oaave.—l<'KnfeT  :  Essai  Philosophique  et  Historique 
sur  les  Legendes  de  la  Vie  Future.  Only  250  copies  printed. 
Crown  8vo.  6s. 

Doubter's  Doubt  about  Science  and  Religion.  Crown  8vo, 
3J.  6d. 

FICHTE,  Johann  C^/z/zV^.— Characteristics  of  the  Present  Age. 
Translated  by  William  Smith.     Post  8vo,  ds. 

Memoir  of  Johann  Gottlieb  Fichte.    By  William  Smith. 

Second  Edition.     Post  Svo,  4^. 
On  the  Nature  of  the  Scholar,  and  its  Manifestations. 

Translated  by  William  Smith.    Second  Edition.    Post  Svo,  y. 

New  Exposition  of  the  Science  of  Knowledge.  Trans- 
lated by  A.  E.  Kroeger.     Svo,  6j. 

FITZ-GERALD,  Mrs,  P.  F.—K  Protest  against  Agnosticism  : 
Introduction  to  a  New  Theory  of  Idealism.     Demy  Svo. 

An  Essay  on  the  Philosophy  of  Self-Consciousness. 
Comprising  an  Analysis  of  Reason  and  the  Rationale  of  Love. 
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of  Presentation  and  Representation,  of  Perception  and  Appercep- 
tion.    Demy  Svo,  ds. 

6^/^ZZW^^K,  iters'. /'.—Apostolic  Succession.  A  Handbook.  Demy 
Svo,  IJ-. 

GOUGH,  Edward,— HYiQ  Bible  True  from  the  Beginning.  A 
Commentary  on  all  those  Portions  of  Scripture  that  are  most 
Questioned  and  Assailed.  Vols.  I.,  II.,  and  III.  Demy  Svo, 
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GREGy  ly.  i?.— Literary  and  Social  Judgments.    Fourth  Edition. 

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I  Of.  6d, 
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CRIMLEY,  Rev.  If.  A'.,  i1/.//.— Tremadoc  Sermons,  chiefly  on 
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Divine  Hum.anity.     Fourth  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  6s, 

The  Temple  of  Humanity,  and  other  Sermons.     Crown  Svo, 
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Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triihner  &  Go's  Publications,     35 

GURNEY,  Alfred.— Omt  Catholic  Inheritance  in  the  Larger 
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HAINES,  C.  ^.—Christianity  and  Islam  in  Spain,  A.D.  756- 
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Unsectarian  Family  Prayers.     New  Edition.    Fcap.   Svo, 
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HUGHESy  Rev.  H.,  M.A. — Principles  of  Natural  and  Super- 
natural Morals.     Vol.  I.  Natural  Morals.     Demy  Svo,  12s. 

JOSEPH,  N.  ■S'.— Religion,  Natural  and  Revealed.  A  Series  of 
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KEMPIS,  Thomas  a.—Oi  the  Imitation  of  Christ.  Parchment 
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Keys  of  the  Creeds  (The).  Third  Revised  Edition.  Crown  Svo, 
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LEWIS,  Harry  .9.— Targum  on  Isaiah  i.-v.  With  Commentary. 
Demy  Svo,  5^. 

MANNING,  Cardinal. — Towards  Evening.  Selections  from  his 
Writings.     Third  Edition.     i6mo,  2s. 

MARTINEAU,  '/ames.-^Kssays,  Philosophical  and  Theolo- 
gical.    2  vols.     Crown  Svo,  £1  4s, 

MEAD,  C.  M.,  Z>.Z>.— Supernatural  Revelation.  An  Essay  con- 
cerning the  Basis  of  the  Christian  Faith.     Royal  Svo,  14J. 

Meditations  on  Death  and  Eternity.  Translated  from  the 
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fKS^mimfA,  -rtfuniiiitWfiiiiiiifnfiifniiiitiTr 


-.6 


A  List  of 


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from  the  German  by  Frederica  Rowan.  Published  by  Her 
Majesty's  gracious  permission.  Being  the  Companion  Volume 
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NICHOLS,  y.  Broadhurst,  and  D  YMOND,  Charles  IViiliam.—lPraC' 
tical  Value  of  Christianity.  Two  Prize  Essays.  Crown 
8vo,  3^.  6d, 

PARKER,  Theodore.  —  Discourse  on  Matters  pertaining  to 
Religion.     People's  Edition.     Crown  8vo,  \s.  6d. ;  cloth,  2s. 

The  Collected  Works  of  Theodore  Parker,  Minister  of  the 
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vols.     8vo,  6s.  each. 

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mons and  Prayers.  III.  Discourses  on  Theology.  IV.  Dis- 
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Miscellaneous  Pieces.  XIII.  Historic  Americans.  XIV. 
Lessons  from  the  World  of  Matter  and  the  World  of  Man. 

Plea  for  Truth  in  Religion.    Crown  8vo,  2s.  6d 

Psalms  of  the  West.    Small  crown  8vo,  $s. 

Pulpit  Conanaentary,  The.  (Old  Testament  Series.)  Edited  by  the 
Rev.  J.  S.  EXELL,  M.A.,  and  the  Very  Rev.  Dean  H.  D.  M. 
Spence,  M.A.,  D.D. 

Genesis.  By  the  Rev.  T.  Whitelaw,  D.D.  With  Homilies  by 
the  Very  Rev.  J.  F.  Montgomery,  D.D.,  Rev.  Prof.  R.  A. 
Redford,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  Rev.  F.  Hastings,  Rev.  W. 
Roberts,  M.A.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Old 
Testament  by  the  Venerable  Archdeacon  Farrar,  D.D.,  F.R.S. ; 
and  Introductions  to  the  Pentateuch  by  the  Right  Rev.  H.  CoT- 
TERiLL,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  T.  Whitelaw,  D.D.  Ninth  Edition. 
I  vol.,  15^. 

Exodus.  By  the  Rev.  Canon  Rawlinson.  With  Homilies  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Orr,  D.D.,  Rev.  D.  Young,  B.A.,  Rev.  C.  A.  Good- 
HART,  Rev.  J.  Urquhart,  and  the  Rev.  H.  T.  Robjohns. 
Fourth  Edition.     2  vols.,  9^.  each. 

Leviticus.  By  the  Rev.  Prebendary  Meyrick,  M.A.  With 
Introductions  by  the  Rev.  R.  Collins,  .Rev.  Professor  A.  Cave, 
and  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  Redford,  LL.B.,  Rev.  J.  A. 
Macdonald,  Rev.  W.  Clarkson,  B.A.,  Rev.  S.  R.  Aldridge, 
LL.B.,  and  Rev.  McCheyne  Edgar,     Fourth  Edition.     15^. 


J^r^an  Paul,  Trench,  Triihner  &  Co.'s  Puhlicaiions.    17 

Pulpit  Commentary,  The— continued. 

Numbers.  By  the  Rev.  R.  Wintf.rbotham,  LL.B.  With 
Homihes  by  the  Rev.  Professor  W.  Binnie,  D.D.,  Rev.  E.  S. 
Prout,  M.A.,  Rev.  D.  Young,  B.A.,  Rev.  J.  Waite,  B.A.,and 
an  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Whitelaw,  D.D. 
Fifth  Edition,     i^s. 

Deuteronomy.  By  the  Rev.  W.  L.  Alexande-,  D.D.  With 
Homihes  by  the  Rev.  C.  Clemance,  D.D.,  Rev.  J.  Orr,  D.D., 
Rev.  R.  M.  Edgar,  M.A.,  Rev.  D.  Davies,  M.A.  Fourth 
edition.     15J. 

Joshua.  By  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Lias,  M.A.  With  Homilies  by  the 
Rev.  S.  R.  Aldridge,  LL.B.,  Rev.  R.  Glover,  Rev.  E.  de 
PRESSENsfi,  D.D.,  Rev.  J.  Waite,  B.A.,  Rev.  W.  F.  Adeney, 
M.A. ;  and  an  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  A.  Plummer,  D.D. 
lifth  Edition.     12s.  6d. 

Judges  and  Ruth.     By  the  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  and 
Rev.  J.  Morison,  D.D.    With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  A.  F  Muir 
M.A.,  Rev.  W.  F.  Adeney,  M.A.,  Rev.  W.  M.  Statham,  and 
Rev.  Professor  J.  Thomson,  M.A.    Fifth  Edition,     los.  6d. 

1  and  2  Samuel.  By  the  Very  Rev.  R.  P.  Smith,  D.D.  With 
Homihes  by  the  Rev.  Donald  Eraser,  D.D.,  Rev.  Prof 
Chapman,  Rev.  B.  Dale,  and  Rev.  G.  Wood,  B.A.  Seventh 
Edition.     15^.  each. 

1  Kings.     By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Hammond,  LL.B.   With  Homilies 

by  the  Rev.  E.  de  Pressens^,  D.D.,  Rev.  J.  Waite,  B.A, 
Rev.  A.  Rowland,  LL.B.,  Rev.  J.  A.  Macdonald,  and  Rev. 
J.  Urquhart.     Fifth  Edition.     15J. 

2  Kings.     By  the  Rev.  Canon  Rawlinson.     With  Homilies  by 

the  Rev.  J.  Orr,  D.D.,  Rev.  D.  Thomas,  D.D.,  and  Rev. 
C.  H.  Irwin,  M.A.     15J. 

1  Chronicles.  By  the  Rev.  Prof.  P.  C.  Barker,  M.A.,  LL.B. 
With  Homihes  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  J.  R.  Thomson,  M.  A.,  Rev.  R. 
Tuck,  B.A.,  Rev.  W.  Clarkson,  B.A.,  Rev.  F.  Whitfield, 
M.A.,  and  Rev.  Richard  Glover.     15^. 

Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther.  By  the  Rev.  Canon  G. 
Rawlinson,  M.A.  With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  J.  R. 
Thomson,  M.A.,  Rev.  Prof.  R.  A.  Redford,  LL.B.,  M.A., 
Rev.  W.  S.  Lewis,  M.A.,  Rev.  J.  A.  Macdonald,  Rev.  A. 
Mackennal,  B.A.,  Rev.  W.  Clarkson,  B.A.,  Rev.  F.  Hastings, 
Rev.  W.  Dinwiddie,  LL.B.,  Rev.  Prof.  Rowlands,  B.A.,  Rev. 
G.  Wood,  B.A.,  Rev.  Prof.  P.  C.  Barker,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  and 
the  Rev.  J.  S.  Exell,  M.A.     Seventh  Edition,     i  vol.,  12s.  6d. 

Isaiah.  By  the  Rev.  Canon  G.  Rawlinson,  M.A.  With  Homilies 
by  the  Rev.  Prof.  E.  Johnson,  M.A.,  Rev.  W.  Clarkson, 
B.A.,  Rev.  W.  M.  Statham,  and  Rev.  R.  Tuck,  B.A.  Second 
Edition.     2  vols.,  i^s.  each. 


38 


A  List  of 


pulpit  Commentary,  The—conftntied, 

Jeremiah.      (Vol.   I.)      By  the   Rev.   Canon  T.   K.   Cheyne. 
D  D      With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  W.  F.  Adeney,  M.A.,  Rev. 
a'.  F.  Muir,  M.A.,  Rev.  S.  Conway,  B.A.,  Rev.  J.  Waite, 
B.A.,  and  Rev.  D.  Young,  B.A.     Third  Edition.     15^. 
Jeremiah  (Vol.  II.)  and  Lamentations.    By  the  Rev.  Canon 
T    K  Cheyne,  D.D.     WitL  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Frot.  J.  K. 
Thomson,  M.A.,  Rev.  W.  F.  Adeney,  M.A.,  Rev.  A.  F.  Muir, 
M.A.,  Rev.  S.  Conway,  B.A.,  Rev.  D.  Young,  B.A.     15^. 
Hosea  and  Joel.     By  the  Rev.  Prof.  J.  J.  Given,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 
With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  J.  R.  Thomson,  M.A.,  Rev. 
A.  Rowland,  B.A.,  LL.B.,  Rev.  C.  Jerdan,  M.A.,  LL.B., 
Rev.  J.  Orr,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  D.  Thomas,  D.D.     15^. 

Pulpit  Commentary,  The.    {'ATew  Testament  Seiics.) 

St    Mark.     By  the  Very  Rev.  E.  Bickersteth,  D.D.,  Dean  of 

"Lichfield.    With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  Thomson,  M.A., 

Rev.  Prof.  J.  J.  Given,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Rev.  Prof.  Johnson,  M.A., 

Rev.  A.  Rowland,  B.A.,  LL.B.,  Rev.  A.  Muir,  and  Rev.  R. 

Green.     Fifth  Edition.    2  vols.,  los.  6d.  each. 

ct   Luke.     By  the  Very  Rev.  H.  D,  M.  Spence.     With  Homilies 

^  'by  the  Rev.  J.  Marshall  Lang,  D.D.,  Rev.  W.  Clarkson, 

B.A.,  and  Rev.  R.  M.  Edgar,  M.A.     2  vols.,  los,  6d,  each. 

St.  John.  By  the  Rev.  Prof.  H.  R.  Reynolds  D.D.  With 
Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  T.  Croskery,  D.D.,  Rev.  Prof.  J.  R. 
Thomson,  M.A.,  Rev.  D.  Young,  B.A.,  Rev.  B.  Thomas, 
Rev.  G.  Brown.     Second  Edition.     2  vols.,  15^.  each. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  the  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells. 
With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  P.  C.  Barker,  M.A.,  LL.B., 
Rev.  Prof.  E.  Johnson,  M.A.,  Rev.  Prof.  R.  A.  Redford, 
LL.B.,  Rev.  R.  Tuck,  B.A.,  Rev.  W.  Clarkson,  B.A.  Fourth 
Edition.     2  vols.,  \os.  6d,  each. 

1  Corinthians.    By  the  Ven.  Archdeacon  Farrar,  D.D.    With 

Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Ex-Chancellor  Lipscomb,  LL.D.,  Rev. 
David  Thomas,  D.D.,  Rev.  D.  Eraser,  D.D.,  Rev.  Prof. 
J.  R.  Thomson,  M.A.,  Rev.  J.  Waite,  B.A.,  Rev.  R.  Tuck, 
B.A.,  Rev.  E.  Hurndall,  M.A.,  and  Rev.  H.  Bremner,  B.D. 
Fourth  Edition.     15.^ 

2  Corinthians  and  Galatians.  By  the  Ven.  Archdeacon 
Farrar,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  Prebendary  E.  Huxtable.  With 
Homilies  by  the  Rev.  Ex-Chancellor  Lipscomb,  LL.D.,  Rev. 
David  Thomas,  D.D.,  Rev.  Donald  Eraser,  D.D.,  Rev.  R. 
Tuck,  B.A.,  Rev.  E.  Hurndall,  M.A.,  Rev.  Prof.  J.  R. 
Thomson,  M.A..  Rev.  R.  Finlayson,  B.A.,  Rev.  W.  F.  Adeney, 
M.A.,  Rev.  R.  M.  Edgar,  M.A.,  and  Rev.  T.  Croskery,  D.D. 
Second  Edition.     21s. 


%#4 


Kegan  Paid,  Trench,  Triibner  &  CoJs  Publications.     39 

Pulpit  Commentary,  T\v%— continued. 

Ephesians,  Philippians,  and  Colossians.  By  the  Rev.  Prof. 
W.  G.  Blaikie,  D.D.,  Rev.  B.  C.  Caffin,  M.A.,  and  Rev.  G. 
G.  Findlay,  B.A.  With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  D.  Thomas, 
D.D.,  Rev.  R.  M.  Edgar,  M.A.,  Rev.  R.  Finlayson,  B.A.,  Rev. 
W.  F.  Adeney,  M.A.,  Rev.  Prof.  T.  Croskery,  D.D.,  Rev. 
E.  S.  Prout,  M.A.,  Rev.  Canon  Vernon  Hutton,  and 
Rev.  U.  R.  Thomas,  D.D.     Second  Edition.     2ij. 

Thessalonians,  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Philemon.  By  the 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  Rev.  Dr.  Gloag,  and  Rev.  Dr. 
Eales.  With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  B.  C.  Caffin,  M.  A.,  Rev.  R. 
Finlayson,  B.A.,  Rev.  Prof.  T.  Croskery,  D.D.,  Rev.  W.  F. 
Adeney,  M.A.,  Rev.  W.  M.  Statham,  and  Rev.  D.  Thomas, 
D.D.     1 5  J. 

Hebrews  and  James.  By  the  Rev.  J.  Barmby,  D.D.,  and  Rev. 
Prebendary  £.  C.  S.  Gibson,  M.A.  With  Homiletics  by  the 
Rev.  C.  Jerdan,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  and  Rev.  Prebendary  E.  C.  S. 
Gibson.  And  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  W.  Jones,  Rev.  C.  New, 
Rev.  D.  Young,  B.A.,  Rev.  J.  S.  Bright,  Rev.  T.  F.  Lockyer, 
B.A.,  and  Rev.  C.  Jerdan,  M.A.,  LL.B.    Second  Edition.    15J. 

Peter,  John,  and  Jude.  By  the  Rev.  B.  C.  Caffin,  M.A., 
Rev.  A.  Plummer,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  S.  D.  F.  Salmond,  D.D. 
With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  A.  Maclaren,  D.D.,  Rev.  C. 
Clemance,  D.D.,  Rev.  Prof.  J.  R.  Thomson,  M.A.,  Rev.  C. 
New,  Rev.  U.  R.  Thomas,  Rev.  R.  Finlayson,  B.A.,  Rev. 
W.  Jones,  Rev.  Prof.  T.  Croskery,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  J.  S. 
Bright,  D.D.     15^. 

Revelation.  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  T.  Randell,  B.D., 
Principal  of  Bede  College,  Durham ;  and  Exposition  by  the  Rev. 
T.  Randell,  assisted  by  the  Rev.  A.  Plummer,  M.A.,  D.D., 
Principal  of  University  College,  Durham,  and  A.  T.  Bott,  M.A. 
With  Homilies  by  the  Rev.  C.  Clemance,  D.D.,  Rev.  S.  Conway, 

•    B.A.,  Rev.  R.  Green,  and  Rev.  D.  Thomas,  D.D. 

PUSEYy  Z>r.— Sermons  for  the  Church's  Seasons  from 
Advent  to  Trinity.  Selected  from  the  Published  Sermons 
of  the  late  Edward  Bouverie  Pusey,  D.D.     Crown  8vo,  5.f. 

RENAN,  Ernest. — Philosophical  Dialogues  and  Fragments. 
From  the  French.     Post  8vo,  7^.  dd. 

An  Essay  on  the  Age  and  Antiquity  of  the  Book  of 
Nabathaean  Agriculture.    Crown  8vo,  3J-.  6r/. 

The  Life  of  Jesus.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  \s.  6d. ;  paper  covers,  u. 

The  Apostles.     Crown  8vo,  cloth,  is.  6d. ;  paper  covers,  is. 

REYNOLDS,  Rev.  J.  ^.— The  Supernatural  in  Nature.  A 
Verification  by  Free  Use  of  Science.  Third  Edition,  Revised 
and  Enlarged,     Demy  8vo,  14J. 


40 


A  List  of 


RE  YNOLDSy  Rev.  J.  W.—contimud, 

The    Mystery  of   Miracles.     Third    and    Enlarged    Edition. 

Crown  8vo,  6^. 
The  Mystery  of  the  Universe  our  Common  Faith.  Demy 

8vo,  14J. 
The  World  to  Come :    Immortality  a  Physical  Fact,    Crown 

8vo,  6j. 

RICHARDSON,  Austin.—" M^hat  are  the  Catholic  Claims?" 
With  Introduction  by  Rev.  LuKE  RiviNGTON.  Crown  8vo, 
3J.  6d. 

RIVINGTON^  Zm/^^.— Authority,  or  a  Plain  Reason  for  join- 
ing  the  Church  of  Rome.     Fifth  Edition.      Crown  8vo, 
y,  (>d. 
Dependence ;    or,    The    Insecurity   of   the    Anglican    Position. 
Crown  8vo,  5^. 

ROBERTSON,  The  late  Rev,  F.  W.,  M.A.—lLife  and  Letters  of. 
Edited  by  the  Rev.  Stopford  Brooke,  M.A. 

I.  Two  vols.,  uniform  with  the  Sermons.     With  Steel  Portrait. 
Crown  8vo,  7^.  6d. 
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Sermons.     Five  Series.     Small  crown  8vo,  3J.  6d.  each. 
Notes  on  Genesis,   New  and  Cheaper  Edition.    Small  crown  Svo, 

3^.  6d, 
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Edition.     Small  crown  8vo,  ^s. 
An  Analysis  of  Tennyson's  "  In  Memoriam."    (Dedicated 
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The  Education  of  the  Human  Race.    Translated  from  the 
German  of  Gotthold  Ephraim  Lessing.     Fcap.  8vo,  2s.  6d. 

*^*  A  Portrait  of  the  late  Rev.  F.  W.  Robertson,  mounted  for 
framing,  can  be  had,  2s.  6d, 

SCANNELL,  Thomas  B.,  B.D.,  and  WILHELM,  Joseph,  D.D.—K 
Manual  of  Catholic  Theology.  Based  on  Scheeben's 
*'Dogmatik."     2  vols.     Demy  8vo.     Vol.  L,  15^. 

SHEEPSHANKS,  Rev.  7.— Confirmation  and  Unction  of  the 
Sick.     Small  crown  8vo,  3J.  6d. 

STEPHEN,  Caroline  ^.—Quaker  Strongholds.     Crown  8vo,  5/. 

Theology  and  Piety  alike  Free  ;  from  the  Point  of  View  of 
Manchester  New  College,  Oxford.  A  Contribution  to 
its  effort  offered  by  an  old  Student.     Demy  8vo,  gs. 


Ke^an  Paul,  Trench,  Truhner  &  Go's  Publications.     41 

TRENCH,  Archbishop.— 'NoXe^  on  the  Parables  of  Our  Lord. 
8vo,   I2J.     Cheap  Edition.     Fifty-sixth  Thousand.     7j.  6d. 

Notes  on  the  Miracles  of  Our  Lord.  8vo,  I2.r.  Cheap 
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Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament.  Tenth  Edition,  En- 
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Westminster  and  other  Sermons.     Crown  8vo,  6s, 

On  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Testament. 
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Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches  in 
Asia.     Fourth  Edition,  Revised.     8vo,  Ss.  6d. 

The  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  An  Exposition  drawn  from  the 
Writings  of  St.  Augustine,  with  an  Essay  on  his  M:'nts  as  an 
Interpreter  of  Holy  Scripture.  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged.  8vo, 
los.  6d. 

Shipwrecks  of  Faith.  Three  Sermons  preached  before  the 
University  of  Cambridge  in  May,  1867.     Fcap.  8vo,  2s.  6d. 

TRINDER,  Rev.  Z>.— The  Worship  of  Heaven,  and  other 
Sermons.     Crown  8vo,  5^. 

WARD,  Wilfrid.— i:\iQ  Wish  to  Believe,  A  Discussion  Concern- 
ing  the  Temper  of  Mind  in  which  a  reasonable  Man  should 
undertake  Religious  Inquiry.     Small  crown  8vo,  5^. 

WARD,  William  George,  Ph.D. — Essays  on  the  Philosophy  of 
Theism.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  by  Wilfrid  Ward. 
2  vols.     Demy  8vo,  2ij. 

What  is  Truth  ?  A  Consideration  of  the  Doubts  as  to  the  Efficacy  of 
Prayer,  raised  by  Evolutionists,  Materialists,  and  others.  By 
"Nemo." 

WILHELM,  Joseph,  D.D.,  and  SCANNELL,  Thomas  B.,  B.D.—K 
Manual  of  Catholic  Theology.  Based  on  Scheeben's 
"Dogmatik."     2  vols.     Demy  8vo.     Vol.  I.,  15J. 

WYNELL-MA  VOW,  S.  S.—The  Light  of  Reason.    Crown  8vo,  Sj. 


i 


.a^^ 


45 


A  List  of 


ENGLISH  AND   FOREIGN   PHILOSOPHICAL  LIBRARY. 

Augusts  Comte  and   Positivism.    By  the  late  John    Stuart 

Mill.     Third  Edition,     y,  6d. 
Candid  Exanaination  of  Theism  (A).     By  Physicus.     Second 

Edition.     7^.  6d, 

Colour-Sense  (The) :  Its  Origin  and  Development.  An  Essay  in 
Comparative  Psychology.    By  Grant  Allen,     io^.  6d. 

Contributions  to  the  History  of  the  Development  of  the 
Human  Race.  Lectures  and  Dissertations.  By  Lazarus 
Geiger.     Translated  from  the  German  by  D.  Asher.     6^. 

Creed  of  Christendom  (The).  Its  Foundations  contrasted  with 
its  Superstructure.  By  W.  R.  Greg.  Eighth  Edition.  2  vols. 
15^. 

Dr.  Appleton :  His  Life  and  Literary  Relics.  By  J.  H.  Appleton 
and  A.  H.  Sayce.     los.  6d, 

Edgar  Quinet :  His  Early  Life  and  Writings.  By  Richard  Heath. 
With  Portraits,  Illustrations,  and  an  Autograph  Letter.     12s.  6d. 

Emerson  at  Home  and  Abroad.    By  M.  D.  Conway.    With 

Portrait.     lor.  6d, 
Enigmas  of  Life.    By  W.  R.  Greg.     Seventeenth  Edition,     ioj.  6d. 

Essays  and  Dialogues  of  Giacomo  Leopardi.  Translated  by 
Charles  Edwardes.     With  Biographical  Sketch,    'js.  6d, 

Essence  of  Christianity '(The).  By  L.  Feuerbach.  Translated 
from  the  German  by  Marian  Evans.     Second  Edition.     7s,  6d. 

Ethic  Demonstrated  in  Geometrical  Order  and  Divided 
into  Five  Parts,  which  treat  (i)  Of  God,  (2)  Of  the  Nature 
and  Origin  of  the  Mind,  (3)  Of  the  Origin  and  Nature  of  the 
Affects,  (4)  Of  Human  Bondage,  or  of  the  Strength  of  the  Affects, 
(5)  Of  the  Power  of  the  Intellect,  or  of  Human  Liberty.  By 
Benedict  de  Spinoza.  Translated  from  the  Latin  by  William 
Hale  White.    lor.  6d. 

Guide  of  the  Perplexed  of  Maimonides  (The).  Translated 
from  the  Original  Text  and  Annotated  by  M.  Friedlander. 
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History  of  Materialism  (A),  and  Criticism  of  its  present  Impor- 
tance. By  Prof.  F.  A.  Lange.  Authorized  Translation  from 
the  German  by  Ernest  C.  Thomas.     In  3  vols.     los.  6d,  each. 

Johann  Gottlieb  Fichte's  Popular  "Works.  The  Nature  of 
the  Scholar ;  The  Vocation  of  the  Scholar ;  The  Vocation  of 
Man ;  The  Doctrine  of  Religion ;  Characteristics  of  the  Present 
Age  ;  Outlines  of  the  Doctrine  of  Knowledge.  With  a  Memoir 
by  William  Smith,  LL.D.    2  vols.    21s. 


Kegdn  Paul^  Trench^  Triihner  &  Go's  Publications.    43 

Moral  Order  and  Progress.  An  Analysis  of  Ethical  Conceptions. 
By  S.  Alexander,     i^. 

Natural  Law.  An  Essay  in  Ethics.  By  Edith  Simcox.  Second 
Edition,     ioj.  dd. 

Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religion  to  the  Spread  of  the 
Universal  Religions.  By  Prof.  C.  P.  Tiele.  Translated 
from  the  Dutch  by  J.  Estlin  Carpenter.     Fourth  Edition. 

Philosophy  of  Law  (The).  By  Prof.  Diodato  Lioy.  Translated 
by  W.  Hastie. 

Philosophy  of  Music  (The).  Lectures  delivered  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution of  Great  Britain.  By  William  Pole,  F.R.S.  Second 
Edition.     7j.  6^/. 

Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious  (The).  By  Eduard  Von 
Hartmann.  Translated  by  William  C.  Coupland.  3  vols. 
31^.  dd. 

Religion  and  Philosophy  in  Germany.  A  Fragment.  By 
Heinrich  Heine.     Translated  by  J.  Snodgrass.     6j. 

Religion  in  China.  Containing  a  brief  Account  of  the  Three 
Religions  of  the  Chinese  ;  with  Observations  on  the  Prospects  of 
Christian  Conversion  amongst  that  People.  By  Joseph  Edkins, 
D.D.     Third  Edition.     1$.  6d. 

Science  of  Knowledge  (The).  By  J.  G.  Fichte.  Translated  from 
the  German  by  A.  E.  Kroeger.  With  an  Introduction  by  Prof. 
W.  T.  Harris,     los.  6d. 

Science  of  Rights  (The).  By  J.  G.  Fichte.  Translated  from  the 
German  by  A.  E.  Kroeger.  With  an  Introduction  by  Profi 
W.  T.  Harris.     12s.  6d. 

^World  as  Will  and  Idea  (The).  By  Arthur  Schopenhauer. 
Translated  from  the  German  by  R.  B.  Haldane  and  John 
Kemp.    3  vols.    £2  lor. 

Extra  Stries, 

An  Account  of  the  Polynesian  Race  :  Its  Origin  and  Migra- 
tions, and  the  Ancient  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People.  By 
Abraham  Fornander.    3  vols.    27J. 

Lessing :  His  Life  and  Writings.  By  James  Sime.  Second  Edition. 
2  vols.     With  Portrfiits.     2i,5-. 

Oriental  Religions,  and  their  Relation  to  Universal  Religion — India, 
By  Samuel  Johnson.    2  vols.    21J. 


44 


A  List  of 


Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triihner  &  Go's  Publications.     45 


SCIENCE. 

BADER,  C— The  Natural  and  Morbid  Changes  of  the 
Human  Eye,  and  their  Treatment.     Medium  8vo,  i6j.  - 

Plates  illustrating  the  Natural  and  Morbid  Changes  of 
the  Human  Eye.  With  Explanatory  Text.  Medium  8vo, 
in  a  portfolio,  2.\s.      Price  for  Text  and  Atlas  taken  together, 

£1   I2J. 

BICKNELL,  C— Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns  of  the  Riviera 
and  Neighbouring  Mountains.  Drawn  and  described 
by  C.  BiCKNELL.  With  82  full-page  Plates,  containing  Illus- 
trations of  350  Specimens,     Imperial  8vo,  half-roan,  gilt  edges, 

BLATER,  j^oseph.—T ahle  of  Quarter-Squares  of  all  Whole 
Numbers  from  1  to  200,000.  For  Simplifying  Multipli- 
cation, Squaring,  and  Extraction  of  the  Square  Root.  Royal 
4to,  half- bound,  21^. 

Table  of  Napier.  Giving  the  Nine  Multiples  of  all  Numbers. 
Cloth  case,  is,  3^. 

BROWNE,  Edgar  A.—l^o^w  to  use  the  Ophthalmoscope.  Being 
Elementary  Instruction  in  Ophthalmoscopy.  Third  Edition. 
Crown  8vo,  3J.  (>d, 

BUNGEy  a— Text-Book  of  Physiological  and  Pathological 
Chemistry.  For  Physicians  and  Students.  Translated  from 
the  German  by  L.  C.  Woodbridge,  M.D.     Demy  8vo,  16s. 

CALLEJA,  Camilo,  i^/.Z).— Principles  of  Universal  Physiology. 
Crown  8vo,  3^.  bd, 

CANDLER,  C— The  Prevention  of  Consumption  :  A  New 
Theory  of  the  Nature  of  the  Tubercle-Bacillus.    Demy  8vo,  loj.  dd. 

The  Prevention  of  Measles.    Crown  8vo,  5j. 

CARPENTER,  W,  ^.— The  Principles  of  Mental  Physiology. 
With  their  Applications  to  the  Training  and  Discipline  of  the 
Mind,  and  the  Study  of  its  Morbid  Conditions.  Illustrated. 
Sixth  Edition.     8vo,  \2s. 

Nature  and  Man.    With  a  Memorial  Sketch  by  the  Rev.  J. 
EsTLiN  Carpenter.    Portrait.     Large  crown  8vo,  %s.  6d, 

COTTA,  B.  von, — Geology  and  History.  A  Popular  Exposition  of 
all  that  is  known  of  the  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants  in  Pre-historic 
Times.     i2mo,  2s, 

DANA,  James  D.— A.  Text-Book  of  Geology,  designed  for  Schools 
and  Academies.     Illustrated.     Crown  8vo,  ioj. 

Manual  of  Geology.     Illustrated  by  a  Chart  of  the  World,  and 


K  '., 


tk^ 
)*.,' 


over  1000  Figures. 


8vo,  2 1  J. 


DANA,  James  D, — continued. 

The  Geological  Story   Briefly   Told,     Illustrated.      i2mo, 
*js.  6d. 

A  System  of  Mineralogy.     By  J.  D.  Dana,  aided  by  G.  J. 
Brush.     Fifth  Edition.     Royal  8vo,  £2  2s. 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography.  Fourth  Edition. 
Numerous  Woodcuts.     Crown  8vo,  8j.  6d. 

DANA,  E.  S.—K  Text-Book  of  Mineralogy.  With  Treatise  on 
Crystallography  and  Physical  Mineralogy.  Third  Edition.  800 
Woodcuts  and  l  Coloured  Plate.     8vo,  15^. 

DU  MONCEL,  Count.— The  Telephone,  the  Microphone,  and 
the  Phonograph.  With  74  Illustrations.  Third  Edition. 
Small  crown  8vo,  5^. 

DYMOCA^,  W^.— The  Vegetable  Materia  Medica  of  Western 
India.    4  Parts.     8vo,  5j-.  each. 

FEATHERMAN,  ^.— The  Social  History  of  the  Races  of 
Mankind.  Demy  8vo.  Div.  I.  The  Nigritians.  £1  lis.  6d. 
Div.  II.-I.  Papuo  and  Malayo  Melanesians.  £l  $s.  Div.  II.- 
II.  Oceano-Melanesians.  £1  ^s.  Div.  III. -I.  Aoneo-Marano- 
nians.  2$s.  Div.  III. -II.  Chiapo  and  Guazano  Maranonians. 
28j.     Div.  V.     The  Aramseans.    £l  is. 

FITZGERALD,  R.  Z>.— Australian  Orchids.  Folio.  Part  I. 
7  Plates.  Part  II.  lo  Plates.  Part  III.  10  Plates.  Part  IV, 
10  Plates.  Part  V.  10  Plates.  Part  VI.  10  Plates.  Each  Part, 
coloured,  2\s.  ;  plain,  \os.  6d.  Part  VII.  10  Plates.  Vol.  II., 
Part  I.  10  Plates.     Each,  coloured,  2<^s. 

GALLOIVAY,  Robert.— A  Treatise  on  Fuel.  Scientific  and  Prac- 
tical.    With  Illustrations.     Post  8vo,  6^. 

Kducation  :  Scientific  and  Technical ;  or,  How  the  In- 
ductive Sciences  are  Taught,  and  How  they  Ought  to  be  Taught. 
8vo,  lor.  6d, 

IIAECKEL,  Prof.  Ernst.— The  History  of  Creation.  Translation 
revised  by  Professor  E.  Ray  Lankester,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  With 
Coloured  Plates  and  Genealogical  Trees  of  the  various  groups 
of  both  Plants  and  Animals.  2  vols.  Third  Edition,  Post 
8vo,  32J. 

The  History  of  the  Evolution  of  Man.  With  numerous 
Illustrations.     2  vols.     Post  8vo,  32i' 

A  Visit  to  Ceylon.     Post  8vo,  ^s.  6d, 

Freedom  in  Science  and  Teaching.  With  a  Prefatory  Note 
by  T.  H.  Huxley,  F.R.S.    Crown  8vo,  5j-. 

IlEIDENHAIN,  Rudolph,  i)/.Z>.— Hypnotism,  or  Animal  Mag- 
netism. With  Preface  by  G.  J.  Romanes.  Second  Edition. 
Small  crown  Svo,  zs,  dd. 


re. 


46 


A  List  of 


HEN  WOOD,  William  7^rj/.— The  Metalliferous  Deposits  of 
Cornwall  and  Devon.  With  Appendices  on  Subterranean 
Temperature ;  tlie  Electricity  of  Rocks  and  Veins  ;  the  Quan- 
tities of  Water  in  the  Cornish  Mines  ;  and  Mining  Statistics. 
With  113  Tables,  and  12  Plates,  half-bound.     8vo,  £2  zs. 

Observations  on  Metalliferous  Deposits,  and  on  Sub- 
terranean Temperature.  In  2  Parts.  With  38  Tables, 
31  Engravings  on  Wood,  and  6  Plates.     8vo,  ;^i  16^. 

ffOSPITALIER,  ^.— The  Modern  Applications  of  Electricity. 
Translated  and  Enlarged  by  Julius  Maier,  Ph.D.  2  vols. 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  many  additions  and  numerous 
Illustrations.     Demy  8vo,  25^. 

HULME,  F.  Edward,— Math.eTna.tical  Drawing  Instruments, 
and  How^  to  Use  Them.  With  Illustrations.  Third 
Edition.     Imperial  i6mo,  y.  6d. 

INMAN,  fames.— N EiUtical  Tables.  Designed  for  the  Use  of  British 
Seamen.    New  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.    Demy  8vo,  16^. 

KlNAHANy  G.  ^.—Valleys  and  their  Relation  to  Fissures, 
Fractures,  and  Faults.    Crown  8vo,  yj.  6d. 

KLEINf  Felix. — Lectures  on  the  Ikosahedron,  and  the  Solution 
of  Equations  of  the  Fifth  Degree.  Translated  by  G.  G.  Morrick. 
Demy  8vo,  ioj.  6d, 

LENDENFELDy  R.  z/^«.— Monograph  of  the  Horny  Sponges. 
With  50  Plates.  Issued  by  direction  of  the  Royal  Society. 
4to,  IZ* 

LESLEY,  y.  P. — Man's  Origin  and  Destiny.  Sketched  from  the 
Platform  of  the  Physical  Sciences.  Second  Edition.  Crown 
8vo,  Ts.  6d. 

LlVERSLDGEy  ^.— The  Minerals  of  New  South  "Wales,  etc. 
With  large  Coloured  Map.     Royal  8vo,  iSj. 

MIVART^  St.  George.^On  Truth.     Demy  8vo,  ids. 

The  Origin  of  Human  Reason.    Demy  8vo,  lOf.  6d. 

NICOLS,  Arthur,  F.G.S.,  F.R.G.S.— Chapters  from  the  Physical 
History  of  the  Earth.  An  Introduction  to  Geology  and 
Palaeontology.     With  numerous  Illustrations.     Crown  8vo,  5^-. 

PYE,  PValier. — Surgical  Handicraft.  A  Manual  of  Surgical  Mani- 
pulations. With  233  Illustrations  on  Wood.  Second  Edition. 
Crown  8vo,  los.  6d. 

Elementary  Bandaging  and  Surgical  Dressing.     For  the 
Use  of  Dressers  and  Nurses.     l8mo,  2J. 

RAMSA  Y,  E.  P. — Tabular  List  of  all  the  Australian  Birds  at 
present  know^n  to  the  Author.     Crown  4to,  I2j.  6</. 


Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  Co.'s  Publications.    47 

RLBOT,  Prof,  7%.— Heredity :  A  Psychological  Study  of  its  Phenomena, 
its  Laws,  its  Causes,  and  its  Consequences.     Second  Edition. 
Large  crown  8vo,  Qj. 
English  Psychology.     Crown  8vo,  *is.  (>d. 

RODDy  Edward  LLearle.—TYiQ  Birds  of  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly 
Islands.  Edited  by  J.  E.  Harting.  With  Portrait  and 
Map.     8vo,  I4f. 

ROMANES,  G.  y.  — Mental  Evolution  in  Animals.    With  a 
Posthumous  Essay  on  Instinct  by  Charles  Darwin,  F.R.S. 
Demy  8vo,  12s. 
Mental  Evolution  in  Man  :  Origin  of  Human  Faculty. 
Demy  8vo,  i^. 

ROSS,  Lieut.-Colonel  W.  ^.—Alphabetical  Manual  of  Blow- 
pipe Analysis.    Crown  8vo,  5j-. 
Pyrology,  or  Fire  Chemistry.     Small  4to,  36J. 

SCHWENDLER,  Z^w/j.— Instructions  for  Testing  Telegraph 
Lines,  and  the  Technical  Arrangements  in  Offices.  2  vols. 
Demy  8vo,  2IJ. 

SMLTH,  Hamilton,  fun.— HydraLulics,  The  Flow  of  Water  through 
Orifices,  over  Weirs,  and  through  Open  Conduits  and  Pipes. 
With  17  Plates.     Royal  4to,  30J. 

STRECKER-  WISLICENUS.-OrgSinic  Chemistry.  Translated  and 
Edited,  with  Extensive  Additions,  by  W.  R.  Hodgkinson, 
Ph.D.,  and  A.  J.  Green  aw  ay,  F.I.C.  Second  and  cheaper 
Edition.    Demy  8vo,  12s.  6d, 

SYMONS,  G.  /—The  Eruption  of  Krakatoa,  and  Subse- 
quent Phenomena.  Report  of  the  Krakatoa  Committee  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Edited  by  G.  J.  Symons,  F.R.S.  With  6 
Chromolithographs  of  the  Remarkable  Sunsets  of  1883,  and  40 
Maps  and  Diagrams.     4to,  £l  los, 

WANKLYN,  y.  W.— Milk  Analysis.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Examination  of  Milk  and  its  Derivatives,  Cream,  Butler,  and 
Cheese.     Second  Edition.     Crown  8vo,  $5. 

Tea,  Coffee,  and  Cocoa.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Analysis 
of  Tea,  Coffee,  Cocoa,  Chocolate,  Mate  (Paraguay  Tea).  Crown 
8vo,  5J. 

WANKLYN,  y.  A.,  and  COOPER,  W.  7.— Bread  Analysis.  A 
Practical  Treatise  on  the  Examination  of  Flour  and  Lread. 
Crown  8vo,  5 J. 

WANKL  YN,  y.  A.,  and  CHAPMAN,  E.  T.— Water  Analysis.  A 
Treatise  on  the  Examination  of  Potable  Water.  Seventh  Edmoa. 
Entirely  rewritten.     Crown  8vo,  5J. 


48 


A  List  of 


WRIGHT,  G.  Frederick,  D.D.—The  Ice  Age  in  North  America, 
and  its  bearing  upon  the  Antiquity  of  Man.  With 
Maps  and  Illustrations.    8vo,  21s. 


THE    INTERNATIONAL    SCIENTIFIC    SERIES. 

I.  Forms  of  Water  in  Clouds  and  Rivers,  Ice  and  Glaciers. 

By  J.  Tyndall,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.     With  25  Illustrations.     Ninth 
Edition.     5^. 

II.  Physics  and  Politics  ;  or,  Thoughts  on  the  Application  of  the 

Principles  of  "Natural  Selection "  and  "  Inheritance  "  to Pohtical 
Society.    By  Walter  Bagehot.     Eighth  Edition.     5^-. 

III.  Foods.     By  Edward  Smith,  M.D.,  LL.B.,  F.R.S.     With  numerous 

Illustrations.     Ninth  Edition.     5^. 

IV.  Mind  and  Body :  the  Theories  of  their  Relation.      By 

Alexander    Bain,    LL.D.      With    Four    Illustrations.      Eighth 
Edition.     5^. 

V.  The  Study  of  Sociology.     By  ^Herbert  Spencer.     Fourteenth 

Edition.     5^. 

VI.  The  Conservation  of  Energy.     By  Balfour  Stewart,  M.A., 

LL.D.,  F.R.S.     W^ith  14  Illustrations.     Seventh  Edition.     5^. 

VII.  Animal  Locomotion  ;  or,  Walking,  Swimming,  and  Flying.    By 

J.   B.   Pettigrew,  M.D.,   F.R.S.,  etc.     With  130  Illustrations. 
Third  Edition.     5^. 

VIII.  Responsibility  in  Mental  Disease.    By  Henry  Maudsley, 

M.D.     Fourth  Edition.     5^. 

IX.  The  New  Chemistry.     By  Professor  J.   P.  Cooke.    With  31 

Illustrations.     Ninth  Edition.     ^s» 

X.  The  Science  of  Law.    By  Professor  Sheldon  Amos.    Sixth  Edition. 

XI.  Animal  Mechanism  :  a  Treatise  on  Terrestrial  and  Aerial  Loco- 

motion.    By   Professor  E.   J.    Marey.     With   117   Illustrations. 
Third  Edition.     5J. 

XII.  The  Doctrine  of  Descent  and  Darwinism.    By  Professor 

Oscar  Schmidt.     With  26  Illustrations.     Seventh  Edition,     ^s, 

XIII.  The  History  of   the  Conflict  between   Religion  and 

Science.     By  J.  W.  Draper,  M.D.,  LL.D.    Twentieth  Edition. 

XIV.  Fungi :  their  Nature,  Influences,  and  Uses.    By  M.  C. 

Cooke,  M. A.,  LL.D.     Edited  by  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley,  M.A., 
F.L.S,     With  numerous  Illustrations.     Fourth  Edition.     5^. 


f^e^an  Paul,  Trench,  Truhner  &  Cds  PuhHcattons.     49 

XV.  The   Chemistry  of    Light   and    Photography.      By   Dr. 
Hermann  Vogel.     With  100  Illustrations.      Fifth  Edition.     5.. 

XVL  The  Life  and  Growth  of  Language.    By  Professor  William 
Dwight  Whitney.     Fifth  Edition.     5^. 

XVn.  Money   and    the    Mechanism    of    Exchange.    By  W^ 
Stanleyjevons,  M.A.,F.R.S.     Eighth  Edition.     5.  ^ 

XVIII.  The  Nature  of  Light.     With  a  General  Account  of  Physical 

rrh       f  i^  ^''  P"?^."^  Lommel.     With  188  Illustrations  and  a 
1  able  of  bpectra  m  Chromo-lithography.     Fifth  Edition.     5^. 

XIX.  Animal  Parasites  and  Messmates.     By  P.  J.  Van  Beneden. 

With  Zz  Illustrations.     Third  Edition.     5^. 

XX.  On   Fermentation.      By   Professor  SchUtzenberger.      With   28 

Illustrations.     Fourth  Edition.     51. 

XXL  The  Five  Senses  of  Man.  By  Professor  Bernstein.  With 
91  Illustrations.     Fifth  Edition,     (s. 

XXIL  The  Theory  of  Sound  in  its  Relation  to  Music.  By 
Professor  Pietro  Blasema.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Third 
iLaition.     5^. 

XXIII.  Studies  in  Spectrum  Analysis.  By  J.  Norman  Lockyer, 
i^.K..^.  With  6  Photographic  Illustrations  of  Spectra,  and 
numerous  engravings  on  Wood.      Fourth  Edition.     6j-.  dd, 

XXIV.  A  History  of  the  Growth  of  the  Steam  Engine.    By 

1  rofessor  R.  H.  Thurston.    With  numerous  Illustrations.    Fourth 
r.c1ition.     5  J. 

XXV.  Education  as  a  Science.    By  Alexander  Bain,  LL.D.    Seventh 

tdition.     5-f« 

XXVL  "^he  Human  Species.    By  Professor  A.  de  Quatrefages.     Fifth 

XXVII.  Modern  Chromatics.     With  Applications  to  Art  and   In- 

SEdftiorT/*  ""'''•     "^"^  '^'  ^'^^"^^  ^""^^^"'^"^ 

XXVIII.  The  Crayfish  :  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Zoology.  By 
Professor  T.  H.  Huxley.    With  82  Illustrations.    Fifth  Edition,  5^. 

XXIX.  The  Brain  as  an  Organ  of  Mind.    By  H.  Charlton  Bastian, 
M.D.     With  numerous  Illustrations.     Third  Edition.     5j-. 

XXX.  The  Atomic  Theory.     By  Professor  Wurtz.    Translated  by  E. 

Cleminshaw,  F.C.S.     Fifth  Edition.     5^.  ^ 

XXXI.  The  Natural  Conditions  of  Existence  as  they  affect 


so 


A  List  of 


XXXIII  Sight :  an  Exposition  of  the  Principles  of  Monocular  and 
Binocula;  Vision.  By  Joseph  le  Conte.  LL.D.  Second  Edition. 
With  132  Illustrations.     5j. 

XXXIV.  Illusions :  a  Psychological  Study.  By  James  Sully.  Third 
Edition.     5^. 

WW   vniranoes :  what  they  are  and  what  they  teacn. 

XXXV.  volcanoes^,  wn^    j^ddf  F.R.S.    With  96  Illustrations  on 

Wood.     Fourth  Edition.     5J. 

XXXVI.  Suicide  :  an  Essay  on  Comparative  Moral  Statistics.  By  Pro- 
fessor  H.  Morselli.    Second  Edition.    With  Diagrams.     5^. 

XXXVII.  The  Brain  and  its  Functions.  By  J.  Luys.  Witli 
illustrations.     Second  Edition.     5^. 

XXXVIII.  Myth  and  Science  :  an  Essay.  By  Tito  Vignoli.  Third 
Edition.     With  Supplementary  Note.     5^. 

XXXIX.  The  Sun.  By  Professor  Young.  With  Illustrations.  Third 
Edition.     5^. 

vT     Ants    Bees,   and  "Wasps:  a  Record  of  Observations  on  the 

^^-  ^""g^bUs  of  Ihe  Social  Hymenoptera.     By  Sir  John  ^f:--^\^^:^ 

M.P.   With  5  Chromo-lithographic  Illustrations.     Ninth  Edition. 

XLI.  Animal  Intelligence.      By  G.  J.  Romanes,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Fourth  Edition.     5^. 
XLII   The  Concepts  and  Theories  of  Modem  Physics.     By 

J.  B.  Stallo.     Third  Edition.     5^. 
XLIII.  Diseases  of  Memory :  an  Essay  in  the  Positive  Psychology. 

By  Professor  Th.  Ribot.     Third  Edition.     5^. 
XLIV.  Man  before  Metals.     By  N.  Joly.    With  148  Illustrations. 

Fourth  Edition.     5^. 
XLV.  The  Science  of  Politics.    By  Professor  Sheldon  Amos.    Third 

Edition.     5^. 
XLVI.  Klementary  Meteorology.     By  Robert  H.  Scott.    Fourth 

Edition.     With  numerous  Illustrations.     5^. 

XLVII   The  Organs  of  Speech  and  their  Application  in  the 

Formation  of  Articulate  Sounds.      By  Georg  Hermann 

Von  Meyer.     With  47  Woodcuts.     5^. 
XLVIII.  Fallacies.      A  View  of  Logic  from  the  Practical  Side.     By 

'  Alfred  Sidg^vick.     Second  Edition.     5j. 
XLIX.  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,    By  Alphonse  de  Candolle. 

Second  Edition.     5^. 
T.   Jellv-Fish,  Star-Fish,  and  Sea-Urchins.    Being  a  Research 

on   Primidve   Nervous   Systems.      By   G.   J.    Romanes.      With 

Illustrations.     5^. 


Kegan  Pant,  Trench,  TrUbner  &  Co!s  Publications.     5 1 

LI.  The  Common  Sense  of  the  Exact  Sciences.  By  the  late 
William  Kingdon  Clifford.     Second  Edition.     With  100  Figures. 

LII.  Physical  Expression  :  Its  Modes  and  Principles.  By 
Francis  Warner,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  Hunterian  Professor  of  Com- 
parative  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  R.C.S.E.  With  50  Illus- 
trations.     53-. 

LIII.  Anthropoid  Apes.  By  Robert  Hartmann.  With  d^  Illustra- 
tions.    5^. 

LIV.  The  Mammalia  in  their  Relation  to  Primeval  Times. 
By  Oscar  Schmidt.     With  51  Woodcuts,     ^s. 

LV.  Comparative  Literature.    By  IT.  Macaulay  Posnett,  LL.D.    5/. 

LVI.  Earthquakes  and  other  Earth  Movements,  liy  Professor 
John  Milne.     With  38  Figures.     Second  Edition.     5^. 

LVir.  Microbes,  Ferments,  and  Moulds.  By  E.  L.  Trouessart 
With  107  Illustrations.     55. 

LVIIL  Geographical  and  Geological  Distribution  of  Animals* 
By  Professor  A.  Heilprin.     With  Frontispiece.     5J. 

LIX.  'Weather.  A  Popular  Exposition  of  the  Nature  of  Weather 
Changes  from  Day  to  Day.  By  the-  Hon.  Ralph  Abercromby. 
Second  Edition.     With  96  Illustrations.     5j. 

LX.  Animal  Magnetism.  By  Alfred  Binet  and  Charles  Fere'. 
Second  Edition.     5^. 

LXI.  Manual  of  British  Discomycetes,  with  descriptions  of  all  the 
Species  of  Fungi  hitherto  found  in  Britain  included  in  the  Family, 
and  Illustrations  of  the  Genera.   By  William  Phillips,  F.L.S.    5^. 

LXIL  International  Law.  With  Materials  for  a  Code  of  Inter- 
national Law.     By  Professor  Leone  Levi.     5j-. 

LXIII.  The  Geological  History  of  Plants.  By  Sir  J.  William 
Dawson.     With  80  Figures.     5^-. 

LXIV.  The  Origin  of  Floral  Structures  through  Insect 
and  other  Agencies.  By  Rev.  Professor  G.  Henslow.  With 
88  Illustrations.     51. 

LXV.  On  the  Senses,  Instincts,  and  Intelligence  of  Animals. 
With  special  Reference  to  Insects.  By  Sir  John  Lubbock,  Bart., 
M.P.     100  Illustrations.     Second  Edition.     5^. 

LXVI.  The  Primitive  Family :  Its  Origin  and  Development. 
By  C.  N.  Starcke.     5^. 

LXVII.  Physiology  of  Bodily  Exercise.  By  Femand  Lagrange, 
M.D.    5  J. 


S2 


A  List  of 


LXVIII.  The  Colours  of  Animals :  their  Meaning  and  Use, 

especially  considered  in  the  Case  of  Insects.    By  b.  i3. 

Poulton,  F.R.S.     With  Coloured  Frontispiece  and  66  Illustrations 

in  Text.     5-^' 
LXIX.  Introduction  to  Fresh-Water  Algae.    WitKan  Enumera- 

tion  of  all  the  British  Species.     By  M.  C.  Cooke.     13  Plates.    5^- 


ORIENTAL,   EGYPTIAN,   ETO. 

AHLWARDT,  ^F.— The  Divans  of  the  Six  Ancient  Arabic 
^^        Poets,    Ennabiga,    'Antara,   Tharafa,   Zuhair,   'Al- 

quama,  and  Imruulquais.    Edited  by  W.  Ahlwardt. 

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ALABASTER,  Henry.— TtiQ  Wheel  of  the  Law  ;  Buddhism  illus- 

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ALL  Moulavi  Cherdgh.-l^lcie  Proposed  Political,  Legal,  and 
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ARNOLD.  Sir  Edwin,  C.5./.-With  Sa'di  in  the  Garden ;  or, 
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the  "Bostan"  of  the  Persian  Poet  Sa'di.     Embodied  m  a  Dia- 
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India  Revisited.    With  32  Full-page  Illustrations.    From  Photo- 
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sides,  3^.6^.     Library  Edition.     Crown  8vo,  7^.  6^.     Illustrated 
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the  Sanskrit  of  the  Gita  Govinda  of  Jayadeva  ;  Two  Books  from 
*«  The  Iliad  of  India ;  "  and  other  Onental  Poems.    Fifth  Edition. 
*js,  (>d 


1 


Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  Co!s  Publications.    53 

ARNOLD,  Sir  Edwin,  C.S.L— continued. 

Pearls  of  the  Faith  ;  or,  Islam's  Rosary :  being  the  Ninety-nine 
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Indian  Idylls.  From  the  Sanskrit  of  the  Mahabharata.  Crown 
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The  Song  Celestial  ;  or,  Bhagavad-Gita.  Translated  from  the 
Sanskrit  Text.     Second  Edition.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 

•  Ppetical  Works.     Uniform  Edition,  comprising  *' The  Light  of 

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Asiatic  Society.— Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of 
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;^I0,  or  in  parts  from  4^.  to  6j.  each. 

Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  New  Series.  Svo.  Stitched  in  wrapper. 
1864-8S. 

Vol    I.,  2  Parts,  pp.  iv.  and  490,  i6j.— Vol.  II.,  2  Parts,  pp.  522,  ids. 
—Vol.  III.,  2  Parts,  pp.  516,  with  Photograph,  22J.— Vol.  IV.,  2  Parts, 
pp.  521,  i6i-.— Vol.  v.,  2  Parts,  pp.  463,  with  10  full-page  and  foldino 
Plates,  i%s.  6d.—Vol  VI.,  Part  i,  pp.  212,  with  2  Plates  and  a  Map,  S^t 
—Vol.  VI.,  Part  2,  pp.  272,  with  Plate  and  a  Map,  &f.— Vol.  VII.,  Part  i, 
pp.  194,  with  a  Plate,  Sj.— Vol.  VII.,  Part  2,  pp.  204,  with  7  Plates  and 
a  Map,  8j.— Vol.  VIII.,  Part  i,  pp.  156,  with  3  Plates  and  a  Plan,  Ss. 
—Vol.  VIII.,  Part  2,  pp.  152,  Sj.— Vol.  IX.,  Part  i,  pp.   154,  with  a 
Plate,  8.r.— Vol.  IX.,  Part  2,  pp.  292,  with  3  Plates,  lor.  6^.— Vol.  X 
Part  I,  pp.  156,  with  2  Plates  and  a  Map,  &f.— Vol.  X.,  Part  2,  pp.  146I 
6j.— Vol.  X.,  Part  3,  pp.  204,  Sj.— Vol.  XI.,  Part  i,  pp.  128,  5^.— Vol. 
XL,  Part  2,  pp.  158,  with  2  Plates,  7s.  Od.—Vol.  XI.,  Part  3,  pp.  250, 
8^.— Vol.  XII.,  Part  i,  pp.  152,  5^.— Vol.  XII.,  Part  2,  pp.  182,  with  2 
Plates  and  a  Map,  6^.— Vol.  XII.,  Part  3,  pp.  100,  4s.— Vol.  XII.,  Part  4, 
pp.  X.,  152,  cxx.,  16,  Sj.— Vol.  XIII.,  Part  i,  pp.  120,  5j._Vol.  XIII., 
Part  2,  pp.  170,  with  a  Map,  8j.— Vol.  XIII.,  Part  3,  pp.  178,  with  a 
Table,  7s.  6^.— Vol.  XIII.,  Part  4,  pp.  2S2,  with  a  Plate  and  Table, 
los.  6^.— Vol.  XIV.,  Part  i,  pp.  124,  with  a  Table  and  2  Plates,  5^.— 
Vol.  XIV.,  Part  2,  pp.  164,  with  i  Table,  7s.  6^.— Vol.  XIV.,  Part  3, 
pp.  206,  with  6  Plates,  Sj.— Vol.  XIV.,  Part  4,  pp.  492,  with  i  Plate, 
14J.— Vol.  XV.,  Part  i,  pp.  136,  6s.— Vol  XV.,  Part  2,  pp.  158,  with 
3  Tables,  5^.— Vol.  XV.,  Part  3,  pp.  192,  6j.— Vol.  XV.,  Pan  4,  pp. 


54 


A  List  of 


Asiatic  Society — continued, 

Ao  t -Vol  XVI.,  Part  I,  pp.  138,  with  2  Plates.  7..-V0I.  XVI., 
P«t  I,  pp  184,  with  I  Plate',  9.  -Vol.  XVI.,  Part  3,  J^'^-.f  S4.  PP- 
jrj,it -6,  i^t^       -«  vVT     V'\r\  A  DD.  i';2,  8^. — Vol.  XV ii.,  ran  I, 

^n'L'  wi^  6  Hltes,^o.  el-Vd^^Xvfl.;  Part  2,  pp.  .94.  with  a 
pp.  144,  with  O  riaies,  1  ^^  (,cl.—Vo\. 

"^^hf-^lf-X^^^it^'^^'-  Plat'et/S^.-Vol.  XVIII.  Part  2  pp. 
^qriuh  2  Plates!  6..-V0I.  XVIII.,  Part  3,  PP-  if;  w.th  ..Plate  , 
190,  Willi  ^        YVTTT     Part  A.  DP.  3.4.  with  8  Plates  7^-  od.—\o\. 

XK^^M  P^-"  -hh  3  'Pla^rs.  Ll-Vol.  XIX  Part  2,  pp.  ,56, 
X?X-  t^« ',  pp^  1      .  J  g    ^^^1,  g  pi_.„       ioj._ 

V^!^  lirPar^-pr-e^w^ilk  '^Hr  VoT  XK^Pa;t'n;'.'43- 

^k  rPi;;rst^fiario;.MVx°::7aTt1.^."3.r.o^;.^''-  '"• 

^crrr^A^  IV  G-K  Short  Grammar  of  the  Japanese  Spoken 
^Language.     Fourth  Edition.     Crown  8  vo,  12.. 

A  Grammar  of  the  Japanese  Written  Language.   Second 
Edition.     Svo,  28J. 
Auctores  ^an-rm^-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

inder  the  supervision  of  TiiEODOR  Goldstucker.     Large  4to, 
^3  I3.y.  6d. 
Vol  II    The  Institutes  of  Gautama.    Edited,  with  an  Index  of 
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Vol.  III.    Vaitana  Sutra:  The  Ritual  of   the  Atharva 
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tion.     Crown  Svo,  5^. 
PAnCFR    George  Percy,  D.C.L.—Kn  English-Arabic  Lexicon. 
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Royal  4to,  Sof. 
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f 


Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  Co.'s  Publications,     55 

BALLANTYNE,/,  ^.—Elements  of  Hindi  and  Braj  Bhakha 
Grammar,  Compiled  for  the  use  of  the  East  India  College  at 
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First  Lessons  in  Sanskrit  Grammar ;  together  with  an  In- 
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BEALy  S.—A  Catena  of  Buddhist  Scriptures  from  the 
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The  Romantic  Legend  of  Sakya  Buddha.      From  the 
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English-Tibetan  Vocabulary.     Imperial  8vo,  £1  los. 

Jataka  (The),  togethe-ith  its  Coxn^^^^^^^ 

Anterior  Birth  of  Gotama  Buddha,     r^  own      p    y^i    ji,     28^. 

^^l^^iirr  "Vo  Jw!-   r  vYv^;  completing  the  .or.. 

is  in  preparation. 
ysmmGS,Iiargra...-rhe  Indian  Religions  ;  or.  Results  of  the 
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fOHNSON,  Samu^L-OnenXBl  Religions  and  their  Relation  to 
""■^^   Universal  Religion.     Persia.     Demy  8vo.  i8j. 
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\os.  6d.  Vol.  II.  Works  of  Mencius.  I2s,  Vol.  III.  She- 
King ;  or,  Book  of  Poetry.     I2J. 

LILLIEy   Arthur,  M.R.A.S.—yYi&   Popular   Life    of    Buddha. 

Containing  an  Answer  to  the  Hibbert  Lectures  of  1881.     With 
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Buddhism  in  Christendom 

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MAXWELL,  IV.  E.—A  Manual  of  the  Malay  Language. 
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MOCKLER,  E. — A  Grammar  of  the  Baloochee  Language,  as 
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I 


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MUIR,  John — continued. 

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•  • 

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Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language,  ^Writings,  and  Religion 
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Modern  India  and  the  Indians.  Being  a  Series  of  Impres- 
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Fourth  Edition.     I4f. 

The  Life  or  Legend  of  Gaudama,  the  Buddha  of  the  Burmese. 
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Miscellaneous  Kssays,  relating  to  Indian  Subjects.  By  B.  H, 
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Chinese  Buddhism.  A  Volume  of  Sketches,  Historical  and  Critical. 
By  J.  Edkins,  D.D.     i8j. 

The  Gulistan;  or,  Rose  Garden  of  Shekh  Mushliu-'d- 
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The  History  of  Esarhaddon  (Son  of  Sennacherib),  King  of 
Assyria,  B.C.  681-668.  Translated  from  the  Cuneiform  Inscrip* 
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in  the  original  Pali  by  V.  Fausboll,  and  translated  by  T.  W. 
Rhys  Davids.     Translation.    Vol.  I.     18^. 

The  Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese.  By  Basil  Cham- 
berlain,     7j.  dd. 

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Indian  Poetry.  Containing  "The  Indian  Song  of  Songs,"  from 
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The  Religions  of  India.  By  A.  Barth.  Translated  by  Rev. 
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Hindu  Philosophy.  The  Sankhya  Karika  of  Iswara  Krishna. 
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The  Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha ;  or,  Review  of  the  Different 
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Tibetan  Tales.  Derived  from  Indian  Sources.  Translated  from 
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Done  into  English  from  the  German  by  W.  R.  S.  Ralston,    w. 

Linguistic  Essays.    By  Carl  Abel.    ^. 

The  Indian  Empire:  Its  History,  People,  and  Products.  By  Sir 
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History  of  the  Egyptian  Religion.  By  Dr.  C.  P.  Tiele,  Leiden. 
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Udanavarga,  A  Collection  of  Verses  from  the  Buddhist  Canon. 
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Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religion  to  the  Spread  of  the 
Universal  Religions.  By  Prof.  C.  P.  Tiele.  Translated 
from  the  Dutch  by  J.  EsTLiN  Carpenter.  Fourth  Edition.  7^.  6d, 

Si-Yu-Ki.  Buddhist  Records  of  the  ^Western  "World. 
Translated  from  the  Chinese  of  HlUEN  Tsaing  (a.d.  629).  By 
Samuel  Beal.    2  vols.    With  Map.    24s. 

The  Life  of  the  Buddha,  and  the  Early  History  of  his 
Order.  Derived  from  Tibetan  Works  in  the  Bkah-Hgyur  and 
the  Bstan-Hgyur.     By  W.  W.  Rockhill.     los.  6d. 

The  Sankhya  Aphorisms  of  Kapila.  With  Illustrative  Extracts 
from  the  Commentaries.  Translated  by  J.  R.  Ballantyne, 
LL.D.     Third  Edition.     i6j-. 

The  Ordinances  of  Manu.  Translated  from  the  Sanskrit.  With 
an  Introduction  by  the  late  A.  C.  Burnell,  CLE.  Edited  by 
Edward  W.  Hopkins,     igr. 


\ 


I 


Kcgan  Paul  J  TrencJi,  Triibner  &  Go's  Publications,    yi 


The  Life  and  AVorks  of  Alexander  Csoma  De  Kbros  between 
1819  and  1842.  With  a  Short  Notice  of  all  his  Works  and 
Essays,  from  Original  Documents.     By  T.  DuKA,  M.D.     9^. 

Ancient  Proverbs  and  Maxims  from  Burmese  Sources; 
or,  The  Niti  Literature  of  Burma.     By  James  Gray.     6j. 

Manava-Dharma-Castra.  The  Code  of  Manu.  Original  Sanskrit 
Text,  with  Critical  Notes.     By  Prof.  J.  Jolly,  Ph.D.     ioj.  6d. 

Masnavi  I  Ma'navi.  The  Spiritual  Couplets  of  Maulana  Jalalu- 
'd-Dfn  Muhammad  I  Rumf.  Translated  and  Abridged.  By 
E.  H.  Whinfield.    7j.  6d. 

Leaves  from  my  Chinese  Scrap-Book.  By  F.  H.  Balfour. 
7j.  6d. 

Miscellaneous  Papers  relating  to  Indo-China.  Reprinted 
from  "Dalrymple's  Oriental  Repertory,"  "Asiatick  Researches," 
and  the  "  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal."  2  vols.   21s. 

Miscellaneous  Kssays  on  Subjects  connected  with  the 
Malay  Peninsula  and  the  Indian  Archipelago.  From 
the  ** Journals"  of  the  Royal  Asiatic,  Bengal  Asiatic,  and  Royal 
Geographical  Societies;  the  "Transactions"  and  '* Journal"  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Batavia,  and  the  *'  Malayan  Miscellanies." 
Edited  by  R.  Rost.  Second  Series.  2  vols.  With  5  Plates 
and  a  Map.     £1  5^-. 

The  Satakas  of  Bhartrihari.  Translated  from  the  Sanskrit  by  the 
Rev.  B.  Hale  Worth  am.     5^. 

Alberuni's  India.  An  Account  of  the  Religion  of  India :  its 
Philosophy,  Literature,  Geography,  Chronology,  Astronomy, 
Customs,  Law,  and  Astrology,  about  A.D.  1030.  By  Edward 
Sachau.     2  vols.     36^. 

The  Folk-Tales  of  Kashmir.  By  the  Rev.  J.  Hinton  Knowles. 
ids. 

Mediaeval  Researches  from  Eastern  Asiatic  Sources.  Frag- 
ments towards  the  Knowledge  of  the  Geography  and  History  of 
Central  and  Western  Asia  from  the  Thirteenth  to  the  Seven- 
teenth Century.  By  E.  Bretschneider,  M.D.  2  vols.  With 
2  Maps.     2 1  J. 

The  Life  of  Hiuen-Tsiang.  By  the  Shamans  Hwui  Li  and 
Yen-Tsung.  With  an  Account  of  the  Works  of  I-Tsing.  By 
Prof.  Samuel  Beal.     ioj. 

English  Intercourse  with  Siam  in  the  Seventeenth  Century. 
By  J.  Anderson,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.     i$s. 


Bihar  Proverbs.     By  John  Christian. 


[/«  preparaiion. 


72 


A  List  of 


Original  Sanskrit  Texts  on  the  Origin  and  History  of  the 
People  of  India  :  Their  Religion  and  Institutions.  Collected, 
Translated,  and  Illustrated.  By  J.  MuiR,  LL.D.  Vol.  I. 
Mythical  and  Legendary  Accounts  of  the  Origin  of  Caste,  with 
an  inquiry  into  its  existence  in  the  Vedic  Age.    Third  Edition. 


2 IX. 


MILITARY   WORKS. 

BRACKENBURY,  Col  C.  B.,  7?.^.  — Military  Handbooks  for 
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II.  The    Elements    of     Modern     Tactics     Practically 

applied    to    English   Formations.      By  Lieut. -Col. 

Wilkinson   Shaw.     Seventh  Edition.     With  25   Plates  and 

Maps,     Small  crown  8vo,  9^. 
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By  Lieut. -Col.    Sisson  C.    Pratt,  R.A.      Fourth  Edition. 

Small  crown  8vo,  6s. 
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Part :    Permanent  System  of  Administration.       By  Major 

J.  W.  Buxton.     Small  crown  Svo,  ^s.  6d. 

V    Military  Law :   Its  Procedure    and    Practice.      By 

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Small  crown  Svo,  4s.  dd. 
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Trench,  CM.G.     Small  crown  Svo,  6s. 
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BROOKEy  Major,  C.  IC.—K  System  of  Fiejd  Training.  Small 
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CLERY,  C.  Francis,  Col.— Minor  Tactics.  With  26  Maps  and  Plans. 
Eighth  Edition,  Revised.     Crown  Svo,  9s. 

COL  VILE,  Lieut. -CoL  C,  /^— Military  Tribunals,     Sewed,  2J,  6^. 


-  i 

X 

i 

-,i 
-i 


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SCHAtV,  Col.  H.—TYie  Defence  and  Attack  of  Positions  and 
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STONE,  Capt.  F.  Gleadowe,  7?.^.— Tactical  Studies  from  the 
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WILKINSON,  II.  Spenser,  Capt.  20th  Lamashire  R.V.  —  CAWzen 
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Force.     Crown  Svo,  2s.  6d. 


EDUCATIONAL. 

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Slavic  and   Latin.      Ilchester  Lectures  on   Comparative  Lexi- 
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in  Jewish  Schools  and  Families.  With  Map  and  Ap- 
pendices.     Crown  Svo,  is.  6d. 

AHN,  F. — A  Concise  Grammar  of  the  Dutch  Language,  with 
Selections  from  the  best  Authors  in  Prose  and  Poetr}-.  After 
Dr.  F.  Ahn's  Method.     i2mo,  3^.  6d. 

Practical  Grammar  of  the  German  Language.     Crowo 
Svo,  3J.  6d, 


n 


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New,  Practical,  and  Easy  Method  of  Learning  the 
German  Language.  First  and  Second  Courses  in  i  vol. 
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BELLOWS,  y^>^«.— French  and  English  Dictionary  for  the 
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Tons  les  Verbes.  Conjugations  of  all  the  Verbs  in  the  French 
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BOJESEN,  Maria.— K  Guide  to  the  Danish  Language.    De 
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■ 


»'*•; 

'^.\-: 


Kecan  Paul,  Trench,  Truhner  &  Co.'s  Publications.    75 

BRETTE, P.H.,and  THOMAS,  /-.—French  Examination  Papers 
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BUTLER,  F.—The  Spanish  Teacher  and  Colloquial  Phrase 
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The  Origin  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Gothic  Roots.    Demy 
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CONTOPOULOS,  A".— A  Lexicon  of  Modern  Greek-English 
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DELBRUCK.  j5.— Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Language. 
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jyoRSEY  A.  J.  Z>.— A  Practical  Grammar  of  Portuguese 
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76 


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German  Languages.  Edited  by  Gustav  Eger.  2  vols. 
Royal  8vo,  £\  'js. 

ELLIS,  Robert. -^SoMvces  of  the  Etruscan  and  Basque  Lan- 
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FRCEMBLING,  Friedrich  6>//^.— Graduated  German  Reader.  A 
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GELBART,  E.  M.—K  Guide  to  Modern  Greek.  Post  Svo,  yj.  dd. 
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GOWAN,  Major ^  Walter  E.—A.  Ivanoff's  Russian  Grammar. 
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ROSINGy  .?.— English-Danish  Dictionary.    Crown  8vo,  %s.  6d. 

SA  YC£,  A.  H.—Kn  Assyrian  Grammar  for  Comparative  Purposes. 
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SINCLAIR,  F.—K  German  Vocabulary,    Crown  8vo,  2s. 

SMITH,  M.,  and  HORNEMAN,  j^.— Norwegian  Grammar. 
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THOMPSON,  A,  i?.--Dialogues,  Russian  and  Knglish.    Crown 

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Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  TrUhner  &  Co.^s  Publications.    81 


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83 


A  List  of 


GRAY,  il/a^w^//.— Westminster  Chimes,  and  other  Poems.    Small 

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HEINE,  Heinrich.— i:\ve  Love-Songs  of.  Englished  by  H.  B. 
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HUES,  Ivan.—Jiea.Tt  to  Heart.     Small  crown  8vo,  5^. 
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Ke^aji  Paul,  Trench,  Trilhner  &  Co.'s  Publications.    83 

MORRIS,  Z>a/tV.— Poetical  ^Works  of.    New  and  Cheaper  Editions. 
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■i-'t^'S' 


I 


84 


A  List  of 


TRENCH,  Archbishop. 


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WADDIE,  >A«.— Divine  Philosophy.     Small  crown  Svo,  5^. 
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EBERS^  Georg.— Margery .     A  Tale  of  Old  Nuremberg.    Translated 
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Kegan  Paul^  Trench,  TrUhner  &  Co.'s  Publications.    85 

ECKSTEIN,  Ernst. — Nero.  A  Romance.    Translated  from  the  German 
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GARDINER,  Linda.— YLis  Heritage.     With  Frontispiece.     Crown 
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GRAY,  Maxwell. — The  Reproach  of  Annesley.     With  Frontis* 
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Silence  of  Dean  Maitland.   With  Frontispiece.    Crown  Svo,  6j. 

GREY,  Ro7vland.— In  Sunny  Switzerland.     A  Tale  of  Six  Weeks. 
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Lindenblumen  and  other  Stories.     Small  crown  Svo,  $s. 

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HARRIS,  Emily  Marion. — Lady  Dobbs.     A  Novel.    In  2  vols.     21s. 

HUNTER,  Hay,  and  WHYTE,    Walter.— My  Ducats  and    My 
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INGELOW,  yean.— Off:  the  Skelligs.     A  Novel.    With  Frontispiece. 
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LANG,  Andrew. — In   the   Wrong  Paradise,   and    other    Stories. 
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S6 


A  List  of 


MACDONALDy  G,— continued, 

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OGLE,  Anna  C— A  Lost  Love.     Small  crown  Svo,  2s.  6d. 

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3J-.  6d. 
ROBINSON,  Sir  J.  C— The  Dead  Sailor,  and  other  Stories.     Crown 

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SHAW,  Flora  Z.— Castle  Blair:  a  Story  of  Youthful  Days.    Crown 

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Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.'s  Publications.    87 

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MESSRS. 


KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRtJBNER  &  CO.'S 

(Limited) 


EDITIONS   OF 


SHAKSPERE'S   WORKS. 


THE  PARCHMENT  LIBRARY  EDITION. 


THE  A  VON  EDITION 


ff|if*. 


The  Text  of  these  Editions  is  mainly  that  of  Delius.  Wher- 
ever a  variant  reading  is  adopted,  some  good  and  recognized 
Shaksperian  Critic  has  been  followed.  In  no  case  is  a  new 
rendering  of  the  text  proposed;  nor  has  it  bun  thought  ne- 
cessary to  distract  the  reader's  attention  by  notes  or  comments 


[p.  T.  a 


SHAKSPERE'S  WORKS. 

THE  A  VON  EDITION. 

Printed  on  thin   opaque  paper,   and   forming   12  handy 
volumes,  cloth,  iSi".,  or  bound  in  6  volumes,  15X. 

The  set  of  12  volumes  may  also  be  had  in  a  cloth  box, 
price  21^.,  or  bound  in  Roan,  Persian,  Crushed  Persian 
Levant,  Calf,  or  Morocco,  and  enclosed  in  an  attractive 
leather  box  at  prices  from  31^.  dd,  upwards. 


I 
I 


1 


\.        ^ 


SOME  PRESS  NOTICES. 

"  This  edition  will  be  useful  to  those  who  want  a  good  text,  well  and 
clearly  printed,  in  convenient  little  volumes  that  will  slip  easily  into  an 
overcoat  pocket  or  a  travelling-bag. " — St.  J'ames's  Gazette. 

"  We  know  no  prettier  edition  of  Shakspere  for  the  price. " — Academy, 

"  It  is  refreshing  to  meet  with  an  edition  of  Shakspere  of  convenient 
size  and  low  price,  without  either  notes  or  introductions  of  any  sort  to 
distract  the  attention  of  the  reader." — Saturday  Review, 

"It  is  exquisite.  Each  volume  is  handy,  is  beautifully  printed,  and 
in  every  way  lends  itself  to  the  taste  of  the  cultivated  student  of  Shak- 
spere. " — Scotsman. 


London  :  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.,  Lt?. 


SHAKSPERE'S   WORKS. 

THE  PARCHMENT  LIBRARY  EDITION, 

In  1 2  volumes  Elzevir  8vo.,  choicely  printed  on  hand-made 
paper,  and  bound  in  parchment  or  cloth,  price  ^^3  12^., 
or  in  vellum,  price  ;^4  105. 

The  set  of  12  volumes  may  also  be  had  in  a  strong  cloth 
box,  price  j[^z  ^l^-t  or  with  an  oak  hanging  shelf,  jCs  iSs. 


SOME  PRESS  NOTICES. 

"...  There  is,  perhaps,  no  edition  in  which  the  works  of  Shakspere 
can  be  read  in  such  luxury  of  type  and  quiet  distinction  of  form  as  this, 
and  we  warmly  recommend  it.*  — Pali  Mall  Gazette. 

"  For  elegance  of  form  and  beauty  of  typography,  no  edition  of 
Shakspere  hitherto  published  has  excelled  the  'Parchment  Library 
Edition.*  .  .  .  They  are  in  the  strictest  sense  pocket  volumes,  yet  the 
type  is  bold,  and,  being  on  fine  white  hand-made  paper,  can  hardly  tax 
the  weakest  of  sight.  The  print  is  judiciously  confined  to  the  text,  notes 
being  more  appropriate  to  library  editions.  The  whole  will  be  comprised 
in  the  cream-coloured  parchment  which  gives  the  name  to  the  series." 
— Daily  News, 

*'  The  Parchment  Library  Edition  of  Shakspere  needs  no  further 
praise." — Saturday  Review, 

Just  published.     Price  55. 
1  AN  INDEX  TO  THE  WORKS  OF  SHAKSPERE. 

>)^pplicablc  to  all  editions  of  Shakspere,  and  giving  reference,  by  topics, 
t|o  notable  passages  and  significant  expressions ;  brief  histories  of  the 
inlays ;  geographical  names  and  historic  incidents ;  mention  of  all 
characters  and  sketches  of  important  ones  ;  together  with  explanations 
I A  allusions  and  obscure  and  obsolete  words  and  phrases. 
By  EVANGELINE  M.   O'CONNOR. 

London:  Kegan  Pall,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.,  Lt?. 


SHAKSPERE'S   WORKS, 


SPECIMEN   OF  TYPE. 


THE  MERCHANT  OF  VENICE 


Act  I 


Salar.  My  wind,  cooling  my  broth, 

Would  blow  me  to  an  ague,  when  I  thought 
What  harm  a  wind  too  great  might  do  at  sea, 
I  should  not  see  the  sandy  hour-glass  run 
But  I  should  think  of  shallows  and  of  flats, 
And  see  my  wealthy  Andrew,  dock'd  in  sand, 
Vailing  her  high-top  lower  than  her  ribs 
To  kiss  her  burial.     Should  I  go  to  church 
And  see  the  holy  edifice  of  stone, 
And  not  bethink  me  straight  of  dangerous  rocks, 
Which  touching  but  my  gentle  vessel's  side. 
Would  scatter  all  her  spices  on  the  stream. 
Enrobe  the  roaring  waters  with  my  silks. 
And,  in  a  word,  but  even  now  worth  this. 
And  now  worth  nothing  ?    Shall  I  have  the  thouglit 
To  think  on  this,  and  shall  I  lack  the  thought 
That  such  a  thing  bechanc'd  would  make  me  sad  ? 
But  tell  not  me  :  I  know  Antonio 
Is  sad  to  think  upon  his  merchandise. 

Ant.  Believe  me,  no  :  I  thank  my  fortune  for  it. 
My  ventures  are  not  in  one  bottom  trusted, 
Nor  to  one  place ;  nor  is  my  whole  estate 
Upon  the  fortune  of  this  present  year  : 
Therefore  my  merchandise  makes  me  not  sad. 

Salar,  Why,  then  you  are  in  love. 

Ant,  Fie,  fi«  1 

Salar,  Not  in  love  neither  ?    Then  let  us  say  you 
are  sad. 
Because  you  are  not  merry ;  and  'twere  as  easy 
For  you  to  laugh,  and  leap,  and  say  you  are  merry, 
Because   yom  are   not   sad.     Now,   by   two-headed 

Janus, 
Nature  hath  fram'd  strange  fellows  in  her  time : 
Some  that  will  evermore  peep  throi^h  their  eyes 
And  laugh  like  parrots  at  a  bag-piper  ; 
And  other  of  such  vinegar  aspect 


I 


FSINTED    BY  WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND  SONS,    LIMITEI1, 
LONDON  AND   BECCLES. 


'*--. 


London  :  Kegan  Paul,  Trexcii,  Trubner  &  Co.,  Lt^ 


r 


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f^ 


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